15. Generic Operating System Services

The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to operating system features that are available on (almost) all operating systems, such as files and a clock. The interfaces are generally modeled after the Unix or C interfaces, but they are available on most other systems as well. Here’s an overview:

• 15.1. os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
  • error
  • name
  • 15.1.1. Process Parameters
    • environ
    • ctermid()
    • getegid()
    • geteuid()
    • getgid()
    • getgroups()
    • initgroups()
    • getlogin()
    • getpgid()
    • getpgrp()
    • getpid()
    • getppid()
    • getresuid()
    • getresgid()
    • getuid()
    • getenv()
    • putenv()
    • setegid()
    • seteuid()
    • setgid()
    • setgroups()
    • setpgrp()
    • setpgid()
    • setregid()
    • setresgid()
    • setresuid()
    • setreuid()
    • getsid()
    • setsid()
    • setuid()
    • strerror()
    • umask()
    • uname()
    • unsetenv()
  • 15.1.2. File Object Creation
    • fdopen()
    • popen()
    • tmpfile()
    • popen2()
    • popen3()
    • popen4()
  • 15.1.3. File Descriptor Operations
    • close()
    • closerange()
    • dup()
    • dup2()
    • fchmod()
    • fchown()
    • fdatasync()
    • fpathconf()
    • fstat()
    • fstatvfs()
    • fsync()
    • ftruncate()
    • isatty()
    • lseek()
    • SEEK_SET
    • SEEK_CUR
    • SEEK_END
    • open()
    • openpty()
    • pipe()
    • read()
    • tcgetpgrp()
    • tcsetpgrp()
    • ttyname()
    • write()
    • 15.1.3.1. open() flag constants
      • O_RDONLY
      • O_WRONLY
      • O_RDWR
      • O_APPEND
      • O_CREAT
      • O_EXCL
      • O_TRUNC
      • O_DSYNC
      • O_RSYNC
      • O_SYNC
      • O_NDELAY
      • O_NONBLOCK
      • O_NOCTTY
      • O_BINARY
      • O_NOINHERIT
      • O_SHORT_LIVED
      • O_TEMPORARY
      • O_RANDOM
      • O_SEQUENTIAL
      • O_TEXT
      • O_ASYNC
      • O_DIRECT
      • O_DIRECTORY
      • O_NOFOLLOW
      • O_NOATIME
      • O_SHLOCK
      • O_EXLOCK
  • 15.1.4. Files and Directories
    • access()
    • F_OK
    • R_OK
    • W_OK
    • X_OK
    • chdir()
    • fchdir()
    • getcwd()
    • getcwdu()
    • chflags()
    • chroot()
    • chmod()
    • chown()
    • lchflags()
    • lchmod()
    • lchown()
    • link()
    • listdir()
    • lstat()
    • mkfifo()
    • mknod()
    • major()
    • minor()
    • makedev()
    • mkdir()
    • makedirs()
    • pathconf()
    • pathconf_names
    • readlink()
    • remove()
    • removedirs()
    • rename()
    • renames()
    • rmdir()
    • stat()
    • stat_float_times()
    • statvfs()
    • symlink()
    • tempnam()
    • tmpnam()
    • TMP_MAX
    • unlink()
    • utime()
    • walk()
  • 15.1.5. Process Management
    • abort()
    • execl()
    • execle()
    • execlp()
    • execlpe()
    • execv()
    • execve()
    • execvp()
    • execvpe()
    • _exit()
    • EX_OK
    • EX_USAGE
    • EX_DATAERR
    • EX_NOINPUT
    • EX_NOUSER
    • EX_NOHOST
    • EX_UNAVAILABLE
    • EX_SOFTWARE
    • EX_OSERR
    • EX_OSFILE
    • EX_CANTCREAT
    • EX_IOERR
    • EX_TEMPFAIL
    • EX_PROTOCOL
    • EX_NOPERM
    • EX_CONFIG
    • EX_NOTFOUND
    • fork()
    • forkpty()
    • kill()
    • killpg()
    • nice()
    • plock()
    • spawnl()
    • spawnle()
    • spawnlp()
    • spawnlpe()
    • spawnv()
    • spawnve()
    • spawnvp()
    • spawnvpe()
    • P_NOWAIT
    • P_NOWAITO
    • P_WAIT
    • P_DETACH
    • P_OVERLAY
    • startfile()
    • system()
    • times()
    • wait()
    • waitpid()
    • wait3()
    • wait4()
    • WNOHANG
    • WCONTINUED
    • WUNTRACED
    • WCOREDUMP()
    • WIFCONTINUED()
    • WIFSTOPPED()
    • WIFSIGNALED()
    • WIFEXITED()
    • WEXITSTATUS()
    • WSTOPSIG()
    • WTERMSIG()
  • 15.1.6. Miscellaneous System Information
    • confstr()
    • confstr_names
    • getloadavg()
    • sysconf()
    • sysconf_names
    • curdir
    • pardir
    • sep
    • altsep
    • extsep
    • pathsep
    • defpath
    • linesep
    • devnull
  • 15.1.7. Miscellaneous Functions
    • urandom()
• 15.2. io — Core tools for working with streams
  • 15.2.1. Module Interface
    • DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE
    • open()
    • BlockingIOError
      • BlockingIOError.characters_written
    • UnsupportedOperation
  • 15.2.2. I/O Base Classes
    • IOBase
      • IOBase.close()
      • IOBase.closed
      • IOBase.fileno()
      • IOBase.flush()
      • IOBase.isatty()
      • IOBase.readable()
      • IOBase.readline()
      • IOBase.readlines()
      • IOBase.seek()
      • IOBase.seekable()
      • IOBase.tell()
      • IOBase.truncate()
      • IOBase.writable()
      • IOBase.writelines()
      • IOBase.__del__()
    • RawIOBase
      • RawIOBase.read()
      • RawIOBase.readall()
      • RawIOBase.readinto()
      • RawIOBase.write()
    • BufferedIOBase
      • BufferedIOBase.raw
      • BufferedIOBase.detach()
      • BufferedIOBase.read()
      • BufferedIOBase.read1()
      • BufferedIOBase.readinto()
      • BufferedIOBase.write()
  • 15.2.3. Raw File I/O
    • FileIO
      • FileIO.mode
      • FileIO.name
  • 15.2.4. Buffered Streams
    • BytesIO
      • BytesIO.getvalue()
      • BytesIO.read1()
    • BufferedReader
      • BufferedReader.peek()
      • BufferedReader.read()
      • BufferedReader.read1()
    • BufferedWriter
      • BufferedWriter.flush()
      • BufferedWriter.write()
    • BufferedRandom
    • BufferedRWPair
  • 15.2.5. Text I/O
    • TextIOBase
      • TextIOBase.encoding
      • TextIOBase.errors
      • TextIOBase.newlines
      • TextIOBase.buffer
      • TextIOBase.detach()
      • TextIOBase.read()
      • TextIOBase.readline()
      • TextIOBase.seek()
      • TextIOBase.tell()
      • TextIOBase.write()
    • TextIOWrapper
      • TextIOWrapper.line_buffering
    • StringIO
      • StringIO.getvalue()
    • IncrementalNewlineDecoder
  • 15.2.6. Advanced topics
    • 15.2.6.1. Performance
      • 15.2.6.1.1. Binary I/O
      • 15.2.6.1.2. Text I/O
    • 15.2.6.2. Multi-threading
    • 15.2.6.3. Reentrancy
• 15.3. time — Time access and conversions
  • accept2dyear
  • altzone
  • asctime()
  • clock()
  • ctime()
  • daylight
  • gmtime()
  • localtime()
  • mktime()
  • sleep()
  • strftime()
  • strptime()
  • struct_time
  • time()
  • timezone
  • tzname
  • tzset()
• 15.4. argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands
  • 15.4.1. Example
    • 15.4.1.1. Creating a parser
    • 15.4.1.2. Adding arguments
    • 15.4.1.3. Parsing arguments
  • 15.4.2. ArgumentParser objects
    • ArgumentParser
    • 15.4.2.1. prog
    • 15.4.2.2. usage
    • 15.4.2.3. description
    • 15.4.2.4. epilog
    • 15.4.2.5. parents
    • 15.4.2.6. formatter_class
      • RawDescriptionHelpFormatter
      • RawTextHelpFormatter
      • ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
    • 15.4.2.7. prefix_chars
    • 15.4.2.8. fromfile_prefix_chars
    • 15.4.2.9. argument_default
    • 15.4.2.10. conflict_handler
    • 15.4.2.11. add_help
  • 15.4.3. The add_argument() method
    • ArgumentParser.add_argument()
    • 15.4.3.1. name or flags
    • 15.4.3.2. action
    • 15.4.3.3. nargs
    • 15.4.3.4. const
    • 15.4.3.5. default
    • 15.4.3.6. type
    • 15.4.3.7. choices
    • 15.4.3.8. required
    • 15.4.3.9. help
    • 15.4.3.10. metavar
    • 15.4.3.11. dest
    • 15.4.3.12. Action classes
      • Action
  • 15.4.4. The parse_args() method
    • ArgumentParser.parse_args()
    • 15.4.4.1. Option value syntax
    • 15.4.4.2. Invalid arguments
    • 15.4.4.3. Arguments containing -
    • 15.4.4.4. Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)
    • 15.4.4.5. Beyond sys.argv
    • 15.4.4.6. The Namespace object
      • Namespace
  • 15.4.5. Other utilities
    • 15.4.5.1. Sub-commands
      • ArgumentParser.add_subparsers()
    • 15.4.5.2. FileType objects
      • FileType
    • 15.4.5.3. Argument groups
      • ArgumentParser.add_argument_group()
    • 15.4.5.4. Mutual exclusion
      • ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
    • 15.4.5.5. Parser defaults
      • ArgumentParser.set_defaults()
      • ArgumentParser.get_default()
    • 15.4.5.6. Printing help
      • ArgumentParser.print_usage()
      • ArgumentParser.print_help()
      • ArgumentParser.format_usage()
      • ArgumentParser.format_help()
    • 15.4.5.7. Partial parsing
      • ArgumentParser.parse_known_args()
    • 15.4.5.8. Customizing file parsing
      • ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args()
    • 15.4.5.9. Exiting methods
      • ArgumentParser.exit()
      • ArgumentParser.error()
  • 15.4.6. Upgrading optparse code
• 15.5. optparse — Parser for command line options
  • 15.5.1. Background
    • 15.5.1.1. Terminology
    • 15.5.1.2. What are options for?
    • 15.5.1.3. What are positional arguments for?
  • 15.5.2. Tutorial
    • 15.5.2.1. Understanding option actions
    • 15.5.2.2. The store action
    • 15.5.2.3. Handling boolean (flag) options
    • 15.5.2.4. Other actions
    • 15.5.2.5. Default values
    • 15.5.2.6. Generating help
      • 15.5.2.6.1. Grouping Options
        • OptionGroup
        • OptionParser.get_option_group()
    • 15.5.2.7. Printing a version string
      • OptionParser.print_version()
      • OptionParser.get_version()
    • 15.5.2.8. How optparse handles errors
    • 15.5.2.9. Putting it all together
  • 15.5.3. Reference Guide
    • 15.5.3.1. Creating the parser
      • OptionParser
    • 15.5.3.2. Populating the parser
    • 15.5.3.3. Defining options
      • OptionParser.add_option()
    • 15.5.3.4. Option attributes
      • Option.action
      • Option.type
      • Option.dest
      • Option.default
      • Option.nargs
      • Option.const
      • Option.choices
      • Option.callback
      • Option.callback_args
      • Option.callback_kwargs
      • Option.help
      • Option.metavar
    • 15.5.3.5. Standard option actions
    • 15.5.3.6. Standard option types
    • 15.5.3.7. Parsing arguments
    • 15.5.3.8. Querying and manipulating your option parser
      • OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args()
      • OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args()
      • OptionParser.get_option()
      • OptionParser.has_option()
      • OptionParser.remove_option()
    • 15.5.3.9. Conflicts between options
    • 15.5.3.10. Cleanup
    • 15.5.3.11. Other methods
      • OptionParser.set_usage()
      • OptionParser.print_usage()
      • OptionParser.get_usage()
      • OptionParser.set_defaults()
  • 15.5.4. Option Callbacks
    • 15.5.4.1. Defining a callback option
    • 15.5.4.2. How callbacks are called
    • 15.5.4.3. Raising errors in a callback
    • 15.5.4.4. Callback example 1: trivial callback
    • 15.5.4.5. Callback example 2: check option order
    • 15.5.4.6. Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
    • 15.5.4.7. Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
    • 15.5.4.8. Callback example 5: fixed arguments
    • 15.5.4.9. Callback example 6: variable arguments
  • 15.5.5. Extending optparse
    • 15.5.5.1. Adding new types
      • Option.TYPES
      • Option.TYPE_CHECKER
    • 15.5.5.2. Adding new actions
      • Option.ACTIONS
      • Option.STORE_ACTIONS
      • Option.TYPED_ACTIONS
      • Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS
• 15.6. getopt — C-style parser for command line options
  • getopt()
  • gnu_getopt()
  • GetoptError
  • error
• 15.7. logging — Logging facility for Python
  • 15.7.1. Logger Objects
    • Logger
    • Logger.propagate
    • Logger.setLevel()
    • Logger.isEnabledFor()
    • Logger.getEffectiveLevel()
    • Logger.getChild()
    • Logger.debug()
    • Logger.info()
    • Logger.warning()
    • Logger.error()
    • Logger.critical()
    • Logger.log()
    • Logger.exception()
    • Logger.addFilter()
    • Logger.removeFilter()
    • Logger.filter()
    • Logger.addHandler()
    • Logger.removeHandler()
    • Logger.findCaller()
    • Logger.handle()
    • Logger.makeRecord()
  • 15.7.2. Logging Levels
  • 15.7.3. Handler Objects
    • Handler.__init__()
    • Handler.createLock()
    • Handler.acquire()
    • Handler.release()
    • Handler.setLevel()
    • Handler.setFormatter()
    • Handler.addFilter()
    • Handler.removeFilter()
    • Handler.filter()
    • Handler.flush()
    • Handler.close()
    • Handler.handle()
    • Handler.handleError()
    • Handler.format()
    • Handler.emit()
  • 15.7.4. Formatter Objects
    • Formatter
      • Formatter.format()
      • Formatter.formatTime()
      • Formatter.formatException()
  • 15.7.5. Filter Objects
    • Filter
      • Filter.filter()
  • 15.7.6. LogRecord Objects
    • LogRecord
      • LogRecord.getMessage()
  • 15.7.7. LogRecord attributes
  • 15.7.8. LoggerAdapter Objects
    • LoggerAdapter
      • LoggerAdapter.process()
  • 15.7.9. Thread Safety
  • 15.7.10. Module-Level Functions
    • getLogger()
    • getLoggerClass()
    • debug()
    • info()
    • warning()
    • error()
    • critical()
    • exception()
    • log()
    • disable()
    • addLevelName()
    • getLevelName()
    • makeLogRecord()
    • basicConfig()
    • shutdown()
    • setLoggerClass()
  • 15.7.11. Integration with the warnings module
    • captureWarnings()
• 15.8. logging.config — Logging configuration
  • 15.8.1. Configuration functions
    • dictConfig()
    • fileConfig()
    • listen()
    • stopListening()
  • 15.8.2. Configuration dictionary schema
    • 15.8.2.1. Dictionary Schema Details
    • 15.8.2.2. Incremental Configuration
    • 15.8.2.3. Object connections
    • 15.8.2.4. User-defined objects
    • 15.8.2.5. Access to external objects
    • 15.8.2.6. Access to internal objects
    • 15.8.2.7. Import resolution and custom importers
  • 15.8.3. Configuration file format
• 15.9. logging.handlers — Logging handlers
  • 15.9.1. StreamHandler
    • StreamHandler
      • StreamHandler.emit()
      • StreamHandler.flush()
  • 15.9.2. FileHandler
    • FileHandler
      • FileHandler.close()
      • FileHandler.emit()
  • 15.9.3. NullHandler
    • NullHandler
      • NullHandler.emit()
      • NullHandler.handle()
      • NullHandler.createLock()
  • 15.9.4. WatchedFileHandler
    • WatchedFileHandler
      • WatchedFileHandler.emit()
  • 15.9.5. RotatingFileHandler
    • RotatingFileHandler
      • RotatingFileHandler.doRollover()
      • RotatingFileHandler.emit()
  • 15.9.6. TimedRotatingFileHandler
    • TimedRotatingFileHandler
      • TimedRotatingFileHandler.doRollover()
      • TimedRotatingFileHandler.emit()
  • 15.9.7. SocketHandler
    • SocketHandler
      • SocketHandler.close()
      • SocketHandler.emit()
      • SocketHandler.handleError()
      • SocketHandler.makeSocket()
      • SocketHandler.makePickle()
      • SocketHandler.send()
      • SocketHandler.createSocket()
  • 15.9.8. DatagramHandler
    • DatagramHandler
      • DatagramHandler.emit()
      • DatagramHandler.makeSocket()
      • DatagramHandler.send()
  • 15.9.9. SysLogHandler
    • SysLogHandler
      • SysLogHandler.close()
      • SysLogHandler.emit()
      • SysLogHandler.encodePriority()
      • SysLogHandler.mapPriority()
  • 15.9.10. NTEventLogHandler
    • NTEventLogHandler
      • NTEventLogHandler.close()
      • NTEventLogHandler.emit()
      • NTEventLogHandler.getEventCategory()
      • NTEventLogHandler.getEventType()
      • NTEventLogHandler.getMessageID()
  • 15.9.11. SMTPHandler
    • SMTPHandler
      • SMTPHandler.emit()
      • SMTPHandler.getSubject()
  • 15.9.12. MemoryHandler
    • BufferingHandler
      • BufferingHandler.emit()
      • BufferingHandler.flush()
      • BufferingHandler.shouldFlush()
    • MemoryHandler
      • MemoryHandler.close()
      • MemoryHandler.flush()
      • MemoryHandler.setTarget()
      • MemoryHandler.shouldFlush()
  • 15.9.13. HTTPHandler
    • HTTPHandler
      • HTTPHandler.mapLogRecord()
      • HTTPHandler.emit()
• 15.10. getpass — Portable password input
  • getpass()
  • GetPassWarning
  • getuser()
• 15.11. curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays
  • 15.11.1. Functions
    • error
    • baudrate()
    • beep()
    • can_change_color()
    • cbreak()
    • color_content()
    • color_pair()
    • curs_set()
    • def_prog_mode()
    • def_shell_mode()
    • delay_output()
    • doupdate()
    • echo()
    • endwin()
    • erasechar()
    • filter()
    • flash()
    • flushinp()
    • getmouse()
    • getsyx()
    • getwin()
    • has_colors()
    • has_ic()
    • has_il()
    • has_key()
    • halfdelay()
    • init_color()
    • init_pair()
    • initscr()
    • is_term_resized()
    • isendwin()
    • keyname()
    • killchar()
    • longname()
    • meta()
    • mouseinterval()
    • mousemask()
    • napms()
    • newpad()
    • newwin()
    • nl()
    • nocbreak()
    • noecho()
    • nonl()
    • noqiflush()
    • noraw()
    • pair_content()
    • pair_number()
    • putp()
    • qiflush()
    • raw()
    • reset_prog_mode()
    • reset_shell_mode()
    • resetty()
    • resize_term()
    • resizeterm()
    • savetty()
    • setsyx()
    • setupterm()
    • start_color()
    • termattrs()
    • termname()
    • tigetflag()
    • tigetnum()
    • tigetstr()
    • tparm()
    • typeahead()
    • unctrl()
    • ungetch()
    • ungetmouse()
    • use_env()
    • use_default_colors()
    • wrapper()
  • 15.11.2. Window Objects
    • window.addch()
    • window.addnstr()
    • window.addstr()
    • window.attroff()
    • window.attron()
    • window.attrset()
    • window.bkgd()
    • window.bkgdset()
    • window.border()
    • window.box()
    • window.chgat()
    • window.clear()
    • window.clearok()
    • window.clrtobot()
    • window.clrtoeol()
    • window.cursyncup()
    • window.delch()
    • window.deleteln()
    • window.derwin()
    • window.echochar()
    • window.enclose()
    • window.erase()
    • window.getbegyx()
    • window.getbkgd()
    • window.getch()
    • window.getkey()
    • window.getmaxyx()
    • window.getparyx()
    • window.getstr()
    • window.getyx()
    • window.hline()
    • window.idcok()
    • window.idlok()
    • window.immedok()
    • window.inch()
    • window.insch()
    • window.insdelln()
    • window.insertln()
    • window.insnstr()
    • window.insstr()
    • window.instr()
    • window.is_linetouched()
    • window.is_wintouched()
    • window.keypad()
    • window.leaveok()
    • window.move()
    • window.mvderwin()
    • window.mvwin()
    • window.nodelay()
    • window.notimeout()
    • window.noutrefresh()
    • window.overlay()
    • window.overwrite()
    • window.putwin()
    • window.redrawln()
    • window.redrawwin()
    • window.refresh()
    • window.resize()
    • window.scroll()
    • window.scrollok()
    • window.setscrreg()
    • window.standend()
    • window.standout()
    • window.subpad()
    • window.subwin()
    • window.syncdown()
    • window.syncok()
    • window.syncup()
    • window.timeout()
    • window.touchline()
    • window.touchwin()
    • window.untouchwin()
    • window.vline()
  • 15.11.3. Constants
    • ERR
    • OK
    • version
• 15.12. curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs
  • rectangle()
  • 15.12.1. Textbox objects
    • Textbox
      • Textbox.edit()
      • Textbox.do_command()
      • Textbox.gather()
      • Textbox.stripspaces
• 15.13. curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters
  • isalnum()
  • isalpha()
  • isascii()
  • isblank()
  • iscntrl()
  • isdigit()
  • isgraph()
  • islower()
  • isprint()
  • ispunct()
  • isspace()
  • isupper()
  • isxdigit()
  • isctrl()
  • ismeta()
  • ascii()
  • ctrl()
  • alt()
  • unctrl()
  • controlnames
• 15.14. curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses
  • 15.14.1. Functions
    • bottom_panel()
    • new_panel()
    • top_panel()
    • update_panels()
  • 15.14.2. Panel Objects
    • Panel.above()
    • Panel.below()
    • Panel.bottom()
    • Panel.hidden()
    • Panel.hide()
    • Panel.move()
    • Panel.replace()
    • Panel.set_userptr()
    • Panel.show()
    • Panel.top()
    • Panel.userptr()
    • Panel.window()
• 15.15. platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data
  • 15.15.1. Cross Platform
    • architecture()
    • machine()
    • node()
    • platform()
    • processor()
    • python_build()
    • python_compiler()
    • python_branch()
    • python_implementation()
    • python_revision()
    • python_version()
    • python_version_tuple()
    • release()
    • system()
    • system_alias()
    • version()
    • uname()
  • 15.15.2. Java Platform
    • java_ver()
  • 15.15.3. Windows Platform
    • win32_ver()
    • 15.15.3.1. Win95/98 specific
      • popen()
  • 15.15.4. Mac OS Platform
    • mac_ver()
  • 15.15.5. Unix Platforms
    • dist()
    • linux_distribution()
    • libc_ver()
• 15.16. errno — Standard errno system symbols
  • errorcode
  • EPERM
  • ENOENT
  • ESRCH
  • EINTR
  • EIO
  • ENXIO
  • E2BIG
  • ENOEXEC
  • EBADF
  • ECHILD
  • EAGAIN
  • ENOMEM
  • EACCES
  • EFAULT
  • ENOTBLK
  • EBUSY
  • EEXIST
  • EXDEV
  • ENODEV
  • ENOTDIR
  • EISDIR
  • EINVAL
  • ENFILE
  • EMFILE
  • ENOTTY
  • ETXTBSY
  • EFBIG
  • ENOSPC
  • ESPIPE
  • EROFS
  • EMLINK
  • EPIPE
  • EDOM
  • ERANGE
  • EDEADLK
  • ENAMETOOLONG
  • ENOLCK
  • ENOSYS
  • ENOTEMPTY
  • ELOOP
  • EWOULDBLOCK
  • ENOMSG
  • EIDRM
  • ECHRNG
  • EL2NSYNC
  • EL3HLT
  • EL3RST
  • ELNRNG
  • EUNATCH
  • ENOCSI
  • EL2HLT
  • EBADE
  • EBADR
  • EXFULL
  • ENOANO
  • EBADRQC
  • EBADSLT
  • EDEADLOCK
  • EBFONT
  • ENOSTR
  • ENODATA
  • ETIME
  • ENOSR
  • ENONET
  • ENOPKG
  • EREMOTE
  • ENOLINK
  • EADV
  • ESRMNT
  • ECOMM
  • EPROTO
  • EMULTIHOP
  • EDOTDOT
  • EBADMSG
  • EOVERFLOW
  • ENOTUNIQ
  • EBADFD
  • EREMCHG
  • ELIBACC
  • ELIBBAD
  • ELIBSCN
  • ELIBMAX
  • ELIBEXEC
  • EILSEQ
  • ERESTART
  • ESTRPIPE
  • EUSERS
  • ENOTSOCK
  • EDESTADDRREQ
  • EMSGSIZE
  • EPROTOTYPE
  • ENOPROTOOPT
  • EPROTONOSUPPORT
  • ESOCKTNOSUPPORT
  • EOPNOTSUPP
  • EPFNOSUPPORT
  • EAFNOSUPPORT
  • EADDRINUSE
  • EADDRNOTAVAIL
  • ENETDOWN
  • ENETUNREACH
  • ENETRESET
  • ECONNABORTED
  • ECONNRESET
  • ENOBUFS
  • EISCONN
  • ENOTCONN
  • ESHUTDOWN
  • ETOOMANYREFS
  • ETIMEDOUT
  • ECONNREFUSED
  • EHOSTDOWN
  • EHOSTUNREACH
  • EALREADY
  • EINPROGRESS
  • ESTALE
  • EUCLEAN
  • ENOTNAM
  • ENAVAIL
  • EISNAM
  • EREMOTEIO
  • EDQUOT
• 15.17. ctypes — A foreign function library for Python
  • 15.17.1. ctypes tutorial
    • 15.17.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries
    • 15.17.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls
    • 15.17.1.3. Calling functions
    • 15.17.1.4. Fundamental data types
    • 15.17.1.5. Calling functions, continued
    • 15.17.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types
    • 15.17.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
    • 15.17.1.8. Return types
    • 15.17.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
    • 15.17.1.10. Structures and unions
    • 15.17.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order
    • 15.17.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions
    • 15.17.1.13. Arrays
    • 15.17.1.14. Pointers
    • 15.17.1.15. Type conversions
    • 15.17.1.16. Incomplete Types
    • 15.17.1.17. Callback functions
    • 15.17.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls
    • 15.17.1.19. Surprises
    • 15.17.1.20. Variable-sized data types
  • 15.17.2. ctypes reference
    • 15.17.2.1. Finding shared libraries
    • 15.17.2.2. Loading shared libraries
      • CDLL
      • OleDLL
      • WinDLL
      • PyDLL
      • PyDLL._handle
      • PyDLL._name
      • LibraryLoader
        • LibraryLoader.LoadLibrary()
    • 15.17.2.3. Foreign functions
      • _FuncPtr
        • _FuncPtr.restype
        • _FuncPtr.argtypes
        • _FuncPtr.errcheck
      • ArgumentError
    • 15.17.2.4. Function prototypes
      • CFUNCTYPE()
      • WINFUNCTYPE()
      • PYFUNCTYPE()
    • 15.17.2.5. Utility functions
      • addressof()
      • alignment()
      • byref()
      • cast()
      • create_string_buffer()
      • create_unicode_buffer()
      • DllCanUnloadNow()
      • DllGetClassObject()
      • find_library()
      • find_msvcrt()
      • FormatError()
      • GetLastError()
      • get_errno()
      • get_last_error()
      • memmove()
      • memset()
      • POINTER()
      • pointer()
      • resize()
      • set_conversion_mode()
      • set_errno()
      • set_last_error()
      • sizeof()
      • string_at()
      • WinError()
      • wstring_at()
    • 15.17.2.6. Data types
      • _CData
        • _CData.from_buffer()
        • _CData.from_buffer_copy()
        • _CData.from_address()
        • _CData.from_param()
        • _CData.in_dll()
        • _CData._b_base_
        • _CData._b_needsfree_
        • _CData._objects
    • 15.17.2.7. Fundamental data types
      • _SimpleCData
        • _SimpleCData.value
      • c_byte
      • c_char
      • c_char_p
      • c_double
      • c_longdouble
      • c_float
      • c_int
      • c_int8
      • c_int16
      • c_int32
      • c_int64
      • c_long
      • c_longlong
      • c_short
      • c_size_t
      • c_ssize_t
      • c_ubyte
      • c_uint
      • c_uint8
      • c_uint16
      • c_uint32
      • c_uint64
      • c_ulong
      • c_ulonglong
      • c_ushort
      • c_void_p
      • c_wchar
      • c_wchar_p
      • c_bool
      • HRESULT
      • py_object
    • 15.17.2.8. Structured data types
      • Union
      • BigEndianStructure
      • LittleEndianStructure
      • Structure
        • Structure._fields_
        • Structure._pack_
        • Structure._anonymous_
    • 15.17.2.9. Arrays and pointers
      • Array
        • Array._length_
        • Array._type_
      • _Pointer
        • _Pointer._type_
        • _Pointer.contents