Project Gutenberg's Latin for Beginners, by Benjamin Leonard D'Ooge

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Title: Latin for Beginners

Author: Benjamin Leonard D'Ooge

Release Date: April 25, 2006 [EBook #18251]

Language: English

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[Transcriber's Notes:

This stripped-down text file is intended for users whose computers or
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has been preserved, but some changes were necessary to make the text
readable.

Long vowels are shown as
  a: e: i: o: u: y: A: E: I: O: U:
in the introductory section on pronunciation (Secs. 1-18), in vocabulary
lists, and in charts of inflectional endings. Elsewhere in the text,
long-vowel markings have generally been omitted.

The breve symbol, representing a short vowel, has also been omitted.
This symbol was used only in the pronunciation section and in one or two
vocabulary entries.

The notation [oo] represents short "oo".

Letters shown with combined breve and macron have been expanded as
  "-ei or -e:i", "-ius or -i:us".

To make this unpaginated e-text easier to use, each chapter's Special
Vocabulary has been included with its chapter _in addition to_ its
original location near the end of the book. The same was done with the
irregular verbs. The vocabulary lists are at the beginning of each
chapter, as far as possible from the Exercises.

Boldface ("heavy type"), when needed, is shown by /diagonals\. Italics
are shown by _lines_.

Bracketed passages in the original are shown in [[double brackets]].]

       *       *       *       *       *
           *       *       *       *
       *       *       *       *       *

              LATIN FOR BEGINNERS

                       BY

           BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE, Ph.D.

 Professor in the Michigan State Normal College




               Ginn and Company
      Boston - New York - Chicago - London


  Copyright, 1909, 1911 by Benjamin L. D'Ooge
          Entered at Stationers' Hall
              All Rights Reserved
                     013.4




               The Athenaeum Press
Ginn and Company - Proprietors - Boston - U.S.A.


       *       *       *       *       *


PREFACE

To make the course preparatory to Caesar at the same time systematic,
thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of
lessons.

The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language,
its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting
of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts.

Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred
introductory essentials.

Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted
to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary
constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of
the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made
unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in
English grammar.

Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the
study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last
three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions
presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and,
in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and
translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies
in Part II are reviewed.

It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to
teachers:

The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for
the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical
appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other
directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms
of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive
constructions.

The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge's
"Dictionary of Secondary Latin" and Browne's "Latin Word List" as a
basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in
the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest
words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen
are Caesarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Caesar
five or more times. The few words not Caesarian are of such frequent
occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their
appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Caesar
can easily do so, as the Caesarian words are printed in the vocabularies
in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract,
root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of
more frequent occurrence in Caesar. To assist the memory, related
English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more
careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from
their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general
vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above
eighty-five per cent are found in Caesar.

The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent
investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators,
have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The
constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of
English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or
contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the
constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the
infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical
connection are not separated but are treated together.

Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into
Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into
English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Caesar are
introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From
first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for
Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in
the course.

Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from
the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the
book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of
the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This
arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and
vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell
between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and
mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words
not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which
recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last
chapters record his experiences in Caesar's army, and contain much
information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries.
The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the
simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make
the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation.

Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this
branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering
both the vocabulary and the grammar.

The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to
stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting
impressions of Roman life and times.

A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear
explanation throughout.

As an aid to teachers using this book a "Teacher's Manual" has been
prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on
each lesson.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who
tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their
experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion.
Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central
High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High
School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland
O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution.

  BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE

    MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE




CONTENTS

Lesson                                                              Page

  TO THE STUDENT--By way of Introduction                             1-4

PART I. THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN

  ALPHABET, SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS, SYLLABLES, QUANTITY, ACCENT,
    HOW TO READ LATIN 5-11

PART II. WORDS AND FORMS

      I-VI. FIRST PRINCIPLES--_Subject and Predicate,
            Inflection, Number, Nominative Subject, Possessive
            Genitive, Agreement of Verb, Direct Object,
            Indirect Object, etc._--DIALOGUE                       12-24

  VII-VIII. FIRST OR _A_-DECLENSION--_Gender, Agreement of
            Adjectives, Word Order_                                25-30

      IX-X. SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION--GENERAL RULES FOR
            DECLENSION--_Predicate Noun, Apposition_--DIALOGUE     31-35

        XI. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS         36-37

       XII. NOUNS IN -ius AND -ium--GERMANIA                       38-39

      XIII. SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)--Nouns in -er and
            -ir--ITALIA--DIALOGUE                                  39-41

       XIV. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS                          42-43

        XV. ABLATIVE DENOTING WITH--_Cause, Means, Accompaniment,
            Manner_--THE ROMANS PREPARE FOR WAR                    44-46

       XVI. THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES                          46-47

      XVII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE /is, ea, id\--DIALOGUE               48-50

     XVIII. CONJUGATION--Present, Imperfect, and Future of /sum\--
            DIALOGUE                                               51-53

       XIX. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF amo AND moneo             54-56

        XX. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF amo AND moneo--
            _Meaning of the Imperfect_--NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN     56-57

       XXI. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF amo AND moneo--
            NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_)                   58-59

      XXII. REVIEW OF VERBS--_The Dative with Adjectives_--
            CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS                                59-61

     XXIII. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF rego AND audio--
           CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_)                   61-63

      XXIV. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF rego AND audio--
            _The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs_           63-65

       XXV. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF rego AND audio             65-66

      XXVI. VERBS IN -io--Present, Imperfect, and Future Active
            Indicative of /capio\--_The Imperative_                66-68

     XXVII. PASSIVE VOICE--Present, Imperfect, and Future
            Indicative of /amo\ and /moneo\--PERSEUS AND
            ANDROMEDA                                              68-71

    XXVIII. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE
            OF rego AND audio--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA
            (_Continued_)                                          72-73

      XXIX. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE
            OF -io VERBS--PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND
            IMPERATIVE                                             73-75

       XXX. SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS--THE ABLATIVE
            DENOTING FROM--_Place from Which, Separation,
            Personal Agent_                                        75-78

      XXXI. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF sum--
           DIALOGUE                                                79-81

     XXXII. PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR
            CONJUGATIONS--_Meanings of the Perfect_--PERSEUS
            AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_)                            81-83

    XXXIII. PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE--
           PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE                               84-85

     XXXIV. REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA
            (_Concluded_)                                          86-87

      XXXV. PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE--PERFECT PASSIVE
            AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE                           88-90

     XXXVI. REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS--_Prepositions, Yes-or-No
            Questions_                                             90-93

    XXXVII. CONJUGATION OF possum--_The Infinitive used as in
            English_--_Accusative Subject of an Infinitive_--
            THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA                                  93-96

   XXXVIII. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN--
            _Agreement of the Relative_--THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA
            (_Concluded_)                                         97-101

 XXXIX-XLI. THE THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant Stems                101-106

      XLII. REVIEW LESSON--TERROR CIMBRICUS                          107

     XLIII. THIRD DECLENSION--_I_-Stems                          108-110

      XLIV. IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION--
            GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE FIRST BRIDGE
            OVER THE RHINE                                       111-112

       XLV. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE ROMANS
            INVADE THE ENEMY'S COUNTRY                           113-115

      XLVI. THE FOURTH OR _U_-DECLENSION                         116-117

     XLVII. EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE--_Place to Which, Place from
            Which, Place at or in Which, the Locative_--
            Declension of /domus\--DAEDALUS AND ICARUS           117-121

    XLVIII. THE FIFTH OR _E_-DECLENSION--_Ablative of Time_
           --DAEDALUS AND ICARUS (_Continued_)                   121-123

      XLIX. PRONOUNS--Personal and Reflexive Pronouns--DAEDALUS
            AND ICARUS (_Concluded_)                             123-126

         L. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN ipse AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE
            idem--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE                   126-127

        LI. THE DEMONSTRATIVES hic, iste, ille--A GERMAN
            CHIEFTAIN ADDRESSES HIS FOLLOWERS--HOW HORATIUS
            HELD THE BRIDGE (_Continued_)                        128-130

       LII. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE
            BRIDGE (_Concluded_)                                 130-132

      LIII. REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES                     133-135

       LIV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES--_Ablative with
            Comparatives_                                        135-136

        LV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Continued_)--
            Declension of /plus\                                 137-138

       LVI. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Concluded_)--
            _Ablative of the Measure of Difference_              138-139

      LVII. FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS                  140-142

     LVIII. NUMERALS--_Partitive Genitive_                       142-144

       LIX. NUMERALS (_Continued_)--_Accusative of Extent_--
            CAESAR IN GAUL                                       144-146

        LX. DEPONENT VERBS--_Prepositions with the Accusative_   146-147


PART III. CONSTRUCTIONS

       LXI. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD--Inflection of the Present--
            _Indicative and Subjunctive Compared_                148-152

      LXII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE 152-153

     LXIII. INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--_Sequence
            of Tenses_                                           153-155

      LXIV. INFLECTION OF THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT
            SUBJUNCTIVE--_Substantive Clauses of Purpose_        156-159

       LXV. SUBJUNCTIVE OF possum--_Verbs of Fearing_            160-161

      LXVI. THE PARTICIPLES--Tenses and Declension               161-164

     LXVII. THE IRREGULAR VERBS volo, nolo, malo--
           _Ablative Absolute_                                   164-166

    LXVIII. THE IRREGULAR VERB fio--_Subjunctive of Result_      167-168

      LXIX. SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC--_Predicate
            Accusative_                                          169-171

       LXX. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH cum--_Ablative of
            Specification_                                       171-173

      LXXI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Gerund and Gerundive_--
           _Predicate Genitive_                                  173-177

     LXXII. THE IRREGULAR VERB eo--_Indirect Statements_         177-180

    LXXIII. VOCABULARY REVIEW--THE IRREGULAR VERB fero--
            _Dative with Compounds_                              181-183

     LXXIV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Subjunctive in Indirect
            Questions_                                           183-185

      LXXV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Dative of Purpose or End for
            Which_                                               185-186

     LXXVI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Genitive and Ablative of
            Quality or Description_                              186-188

    LXXVII. REVIEW OF AGREEMENT--_Review of the Genitive,
            Dative, and Accusative_                              189-190

   LXXVIII. REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE                               191-192

     LXXIX. REVIEW OF THE SYNTAX OF VERBS                        192-193


READING MATTER

  INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS                                       194-195

  THE LABORS OF HERCULES                                         196-203

  P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY                204-215


APPENDIXES AND VOCABULARIES

  APPENDIX I. TABLES OF DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS,
    ETC.                                                         226-260

  APPENDIX II. RULES OF SYNTAX                                   261-264

  APPENDIX III. REVIEWS                                          265-282

  SPECIAL VOCABULARIES                                           283-298

  LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY                                       299-331

  ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY                                       332-343


INDEX                                                            344-348




LATIN FOR BEGINNERS


TO THE STUDENT--BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION

What is Latin? If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite
page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west
coast a district called Latium,[1] and Rome its capital. The Latin
language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient
Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied
to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language
far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not
quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin
was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the
course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use
about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because
the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman
literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme
excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters.

    [Footnote 1: Pronounce _La:'shi-um_.]

The Spread of Latin. For some centuries after Rome was founded, the
Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was
limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike
neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome's power grew
rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across
the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient
world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred
years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman
power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the
universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing
differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in
Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are
speaking a modernized form of Latin.

The Romans and the Greeks. In their career of conquest the Romans came
into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in
military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in
art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits
the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the
value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so
it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece
conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her
schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to
go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their
training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated
classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks--poets,
artists, orators, and philosophers--flocked to Rome, opened schools, and
taught their arts. Indeed, the preeminence of Greek culture became so
great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers
vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was
choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the
civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to
Greece she owed her literature and her art.

Rome and the Modern World. After conquering the world, Rome impressed
her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the
subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained
largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of
Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the
dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the
common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of
Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the
universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer
the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to
suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Caesar and
Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress
and language, much unlike men of to-day.

Latin and English. Do you know that more than half of the words in the
English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less
Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the
Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke
French--which, you remember, is descended from Latin--and spread their
language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French
played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large
proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure
Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of
scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition
of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner
words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the
staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and
especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also
in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a
knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of
technical and scientific terms.

Why study Latin? The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin
forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our
civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look
to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that
the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use
of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great
practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional
career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood
of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent
foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly
proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind
than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning.

Review Questions. Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium?
Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to
study? Describe the growth of Rome's power and the spread of Latin. What
can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the
ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How
did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What
did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of
English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why
should we study Latin?




PART I

THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN


THE ALPHABET

_1._ The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except
that it has no _w_ and no _j_.

_2._ The vowels, as in English, are _a, e, i, o, u, y_. The other
letters are consonants.

_3._ _I_ is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in
the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called _I
consonant_.

Thus in Iu:-li-us the first _i_ is a consonant, the second a vowel.


SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS[1]

    [Footnote 1: N.B. The sounds of the letters are best learned by
    hearing them correctly pronounced. The matter in this section is,
    therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a
    lesson. As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce
    the examples in class, the pupils following.]

_4._ Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning
of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as
described below.

_5._ The vowels have the following sounds:

  VOWELS[2]                         LATIN EXAMPLES

  a: as in _father_                  ha:c, sta:s
  a like the first _a_ in _aha'_,
    never as in _hat_               a'-mat, ca-na:s
  e: as in _they_                    te:'-la, me:'-ta
  e as in _met_                     te'-net, mer'-ce:s
  i: as in _machine_                 ser'-ti:, pra:'-ti:
  i as in _bit_                     si'-tis, bi'-bi:
  o: as in _holy_                    Ro:'-ma, o:'-ris
  o as in _wholly_, never as in
    _hot_                           mo'-do, bo'-no:s
  u: as in _rude_, or as _oo_ in
    _boot_                          u:'-mor, tu:'-ber
  u as in _full_, or as _oo_ in
    _foot_                          ut, tu:'-tus

NOTE. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound,
except in the case of _a_, between the long and the short vowels. It is
not merely a matter of _quantity_ but also of _quality_.

    [Footnote 2: Long vowels are marked ^, short ones ... ]

  [Transcriber's Note:
  In this version of the text, long vowels are shown as a:, e:, i: ...
  and short vowels are unmarked, as described in the introductory
  notes.]

_6._ In /diphthongs\ (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a
single syllable.

  DIPHTHONGS                        LATIN EXAMPLES

  /ae\ as _ai_ in _aisle_           tae'-dae
  /au\ as _ou_ in _out_             gau'-det
  /ei\ as _ei_ in _eight_           dein'-de
  /eu\ as _e'[oo]_ (a short _e_
    followed by a short _u_ in
    one syllable)                   seu
  /oe\ like _oi_ in _toil_          foe'-dus
  /ui\ like _[oo]'i_ (a short _u_
    followed by a short _i_ in one
    syllable. Cf. English _we_)     cui, huic

NOTE. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not
slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English.

_7._ Consonants are pronounced as in English, except that

  CONSONANTS                        LATIN EXAMPLES

  /c\ is always like _c_ in _cat_,
    never as in _cent_              ca'-do:, ci'-bus, ce:'-na
  /g\ is always like _g_ in _get_,
    never as in _gem_               ge'-mo:, gig'-no:
  /i consonant\ is always like
    _y_ in _yes_                    iam, io'-cus
  /n\ before _c, qu_, or _g_ is
    like _ng_ in _sing_ (compare
    the sound of _n_ in _anchor_)   an'-co-ra (ang'-ko-ra)
  /qu\, /gu\, and sometimes /su\
    before a vowel have the sound
    of _qw, gw_, and _sw_. Here
    _u_ has the value of consonant
    _v_ and is not counted a vowel  in'-quit, qui:, lin'-gua,
                                      san'-guis, sua:'-de-o:
  /s\ is like _s_ in _sea_, never
    as in _ease_                    ro'-sa, is
  /t\ is always like _t_ in
    _native_, never as in _nation_  ra'-ti-o:, na:'-ti-o:
  /v\ is like _w_ in _wine_, never
    as in _vine_                    vi:'-num, vir
  /x\ has the value of two
    consonants (_cs_ or _gs_) and
    is like _x_ in _extract_, not
    as in _exact_                   ex'-tra:, ex-a:c'-tus
  /bs\ is like _ps_ and /bt\ like
    _pt_                            urbs, ob-ti'-ne-o:
  /ch\, /ph\, and /th\ are like
    _c_, _p_, _t_                   pul'-cher, Phoe'-be:,
                                      the-a:'-trum

    _a._ In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound.
    Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between
    the two sounds. Thus pronounce _tt_ as in _rat-trap_, not as in
    _rattle_; _pp_ as in _hop-pole_, not as in _upper_. Examples,
    /mit'-to:\, /Ap'pi-us\, /bel'-lum\.


SYLLABLES

_8._ A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs.
Thus /aes-ta:'-te\ has three syllables, /au-di-en'-dus\ has four.

    _a._ Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one
    syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English
    _inside_ with Latin i:n-si:'-de.

_9._ Words are divided into syllables as follows:

1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus
/a-ma:'-bi-lis\, /me-mo'-ri-a\, /in-te'-re-a:\, /a'-best\,
/pe-re:'-git\.[3]

    [Footnote 3: In writing and printing it is customary to divide
    the parts of a compound, as /inter-ea:\, /ab-est\, /sub-a:ctus\,
    /per-e:git\, contrary to the correct phonetic rule.]

2. Combinations of two or more consonants:

    _a._ A consonant followed by _l_ or _r_ goes with the _l_ or _r_.
    Thus /pu:'-bli-cus\, /a'-gri:\.

EXCEPTION. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also _ll_ and
_rr_, follow rule _b_. Thus /ab'-lu-o:\, /ab-rum'-po:\, /il'-le\,
/fer'-rum\.

    _b._ In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant
    goes with the preceding vowel.[4] Thus /mag'-nus\, /e-ges'-ta:s\,
    /vic-to:'-ri-a\, /hos'-pes\, /an'-nus\, /su-ba:c'-tus\.

    [Footnote 4: The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fu:nc-tus,
    sa:nc-tus.]

3. The last syllable of a word is called the _ul'-ti-ma_; the one
next to the last, the _pe-nult'_; the one before the penult, the
_an'-te-pe-nult'_.

_10._ EXERCISE

Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce
them, placing the accent as indicated:

Va:'de ad formi:'cam, O: pi'ger, et co:nsi:'dera: vi'a:s e'ius et
di'sce sapie'ntiam: quae cum no:n ha'beat du'cem nec praecepto:'rem nec
pri:'ncipem, pa'rat in aesta:'te ci'bum si'bi et co'ngregat in me'sse
quod co'medat.

[[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which,
having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer
and gathereth her food in the harvest.]]


QUANTITY

_11._ The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to
pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper
observance of quantity.

_12._ Quantity of Vowels. Vowels are either long (^) or short.
In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be
considered short.

  [Transcriber's Note:
  The wording of Sec. 12 is as in the original, except that the macron
  (long-vowel symbol) has been replaced with a caret ("hat"), and the
  breve (short-vowel symbol) has been omitted.]

  1. A vowel is short before another vowel or _h_; as /po-e:'-ta\,
  /tra'-ho:\.

  2. A vowel is short before _nt_ and _nd_, before final _m_ or _t_,
  and, except in words of one syllable, before final _l_ or _r_. Thus
  /a'-mant\, /a-man'-dus\, /a-ma:'-bam\, /a-ma:'-bat\, /a'-ni-mal\,
  /a'-mor\.

  3. A vowel is long before _nf_, _ns_, _nx_, and _nct_. Thus
  /i:n'-fe-ro:\, /re'-ge:ns\, /sa:n'-xi:\, /sa:nc'-tus\.

  4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked.

_13._ Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are either long or short, and
their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels.

  1. A syllable is short,

    _a._ If it ends in a short vowel; as /a'-mo:\, /pi'-gri\.

NOTE. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final
consonant. Thus the word /me-mo'-ri-am\ contains four short syllables.
In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the
short vowel is followed by a final consonant.

  2. A syllable is long,

    _a._ If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as /cu:'-ro:\,
    /poe'-nae\, /aes-ta:'-te\.

    _b._ If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another
    consonant, as /cor'-pus\, /mag'-nus\.

NOTE. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and
should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in /ter'-ra\, /in'-ter\, the
first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should
be given the short sound. In words like /saxum\ the first syllable is
long because _x_ has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_).

  3. In determining quantity _h_ is not counted a consonant.

NOTE. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the
short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a
consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so
these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes
about as long to say /cur'-ro:\ as it does /cu:'-ro:\, and so each of
these first syllables is long. Compare /mol'-lis\ and /mo:'-lis\,
/a:-mis'-si:\ and /a:-mi'-si:\.


ACCENT

_14._ Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as /me:n'-sa\,
/Cae'-sar\.

_15._ Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the
penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus
/mo-ne:'-mus\, /re'-gi-tur\, /a-gri'-co-la\, /a-man'-dus\.

NOTE. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the
length of the _syllable_ and not by the length of the vowel in the
syllable. (Cf. Sec. 13.2, Note.)

_16._ Certain little words called _enclit'ics_[5] which have no separate
existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most
common are /-que\, _and_; /-ve\, _or_; and /-ne\, the question sign.
The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its
quantity. Thus /populus'que\, /dea'que\, /re:gna've\, /audit'ne\.

    [Footnote 5: Enclitic means _leaning back_, and that is, as you see,
    just what these little words do. They cannot stand alone and so they
    lean back for support upon the preceding word.]

HOW TO READ LATIN

_17._ To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right.
Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities
carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting
the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. Sec. 15.) Give every vowel its
proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind
that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in
separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in
thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word.

_18._ Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a
time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables
inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure
smoothness of meter.

EXCELSIOR [[HIGHER]]! [6]

  The shades of night were falling fast,
  As through an Alpine village passed
  A youth, who bore, 'mid snow and ice,
  A banner with the strange device,
           Excelsior!

      Cade:bant noctis umbrae, dum
      Ibat per vi:cum Alpicum
      Gelu: nivequ(e) adole:sce:ns,
      Ve:xillum cum signo: fere:ns,
               Excelsior!

  His brow was sad; his eye beneath,
  Flashed like a falchion from its sheath,
  And like a silver clarion rung
  The accents of that unknown tongue,
           Excelsior!

      Fro:ns tri:stis, micat oculus
      Velut e: va:gi:na: gladius;
      Sonantque simile:s tubae
      Accentu:s lingu(ae) incognitae,
               Excelsior!

  In happy homes he saw the light
  Of household fires gleam warm and bright;
  Above, the spectral glaciers shone,
  And from his lips escaped a groan,
           Excelsior!

      In domibus videt cla:ra:s
      Foco:rum lu:ce:s calida:s;
      Relucet glacie:s a:cris,
      Et rumpit gemitu:s labri:s,
               Excelsior!

  "Try not the Pass!" the old man said;
  "Dark lowers the tempest overhead,
  The roaring torrent is deep and wide!"
  And loud that clarion voice replied,
        Excelsior!

      Di:cit senex, "Ne: tra:nsea:s!
      Supra: nigre:scit tempesta:s;
      La:tus et altus est torre:ns."
      Cla:ra ve:nit vo:x responde:ns,
            Excelsior!

  At break of day, as heavenward
  The pious monks of Saint Bernard
  Uttered the oft-repeated prayer,
  A voice cried through the startled air,
        Excelsior!

      Iam lu:ce:sce:bat, et fra:tre:s
      Sa:ncti: Bernardi: vigile:s
      O:ra:bant prece:s solita:s,
      Cum vo:x cla:ma:vit per aura:s,
            Excelsior!

  A traveler, by the faithful hound,
  Half-buried in the snow was found,
  Still grasping in his hand of ice
  That banner with the strange device,
        Excelsior!

      Se:mi-sepultus via:tor
      Can(e) a: fi:do: reperi:tur,
      Compre:nde:ns pugno: gelido:
      Illud ve:xillum cum signo:,
            Excelsior!

  There in the twilight cold and gray,
  Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay,
  And from the sky, serene and far,
  A voice fell, like a falling star,
        Excelsior!


      Iacet corpus exanimum
      Sed lu:ce fri:gida: pulchrum;
      Et caelo: procul exie:ns
      Cadit vo:x, ut Stella cade:ns,
          Excelsior!

    [Footnote 6: Translation by C. W. Goodchild in _Praeco Latinus_,
    October, 1898.]




PART II

WORDS AND FORMS


LESSON I

FIRST PRINCIPLES

_19._ Subject and Predicate.
  1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences.
  A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in
  its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus,

  _Galba is a farmer_
    Galba est agricola
  _The sailor fights_
    Nauta pugnat

In each of these sentences there are two parts:

  SUBJECT               PREDICATE
    _Galba_               _is a farmer_
      Galba
    _The sailor_          _fights_
      Nauta               pugnat

  2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something
  is said, and is therefore a _noun_ or some word which can serve the
  same purpose.

    _a._ Pronouns, as their name implies (_pro_, "instead of," and
    _noun_), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating
    the same noun, as, _Galba is a farmer; /he\ is a sturdy fellow_.

  3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists
  of a verb with or without modifiers.

    _a._ A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act)
    concerning a person, place, or thing.

_20._ The Object. In the two sentences, _The boy hit the ball_ and
_The ball hit the boy_, the same words are used, but the meaning is
different, and depends upon the order of the words. The /doer\ of the
act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the
/subject\. /That to which something is done\ is the /direct object\ of
the verb. _The boy hit the ball_ is therefore analyzed as follows:

    SUBJECT        PREDICATE
                 /-----------\
    _The boy_    _hit the ball_
               (verb)  (direct object)

    _a._ A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in
    the sentence above, is called a /transitive verb\. A verb which does
    not admit of a direct object is called /intransitive\, as, _I walk_,
    _he comes_.

_21._ The Copula. The verb _to be_ in its different forms--_are_,
_is_, _was_, etc.--does not tell us anything about the subject; neither
does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word
or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is
called the /copula\, that is, _the joiner_ or _link_.

_22._ In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the
_nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas_:

  1. America est patria mea
     _America is fatherland my_

  2. Agricola filiam amat
     _(The) farmer (his) daughter loves_

  3. Filia est Iulia
     _(His) daughter is Julia_

  4. Iulia et agricola sunt in insula
     _Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island_

  5. Iulia aquam portat
     _Julia water carries_

  6. Rosam in comis habet
     _(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has_

  7. Iulia est puella pulchra
     _Julia is (a) girl pretty_

  8. Domina filiam pulchram habet
     _(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has_

    _a._ The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words
    which are necessary in English. First of all, _Latin has no article
    /the\ or /a\_; thus _agricola_ may mean _the farmer, a farmer_,
    or simply _farmer_. Then, too, the personal pronouns, _I, you, he,
    she_, etc., and the possessive pronouns, _my, your, his, her_, etc.,
    are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without
    them.


LESSON II

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

_23._ Inflection. Words may change their forms to indicate some change
in sense or use, as, _is, are_; _was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer,
farmer's; woman, women_. This is called /inflection\. The inflection of
a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its /declension\, that of a verb
its /conjugation\.

_24._ Number. Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and
plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding _-s_ or _-es_ to
the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing
the ending of the word. Compare

  Naut-a pugnat
    _The sailor fights_
  Naut-ae pugnant
    _The sailors fight_

_25._ RULE. _Nouns that end in -a in the singular end in -ae in the
plural_.

_26._ Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the
Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each.

  agri'cola, _farmer_ (agriculture)[1]
  aqua, _water_ (aquarium)
  causa, _cause, reason_
  do'mina, _lady of the house, mistress_ (dominate)
  filia, _daughter_ (filial)
  fortu'na, _fortune_
  fuga, _flight_ (fugitive)
  iniu'ria, _wrong, injury_
  luna, _moon_ (lunar)
  nauta, _sailor_ (nautical)
  puel'la, _girl_
  silva, forest (silvan)
  terra, _land_ (terrace)

    [Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to
    the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as /causa\,
    _cause_, no comparison is needed.]

_27._ Compare again the sentences

  Nauta pugna-t
    _The sailor fights_
  Nautae pugna-nt
    _The sailors fight_

In the first sentence the verb /pugna-t\ is in the third person
singular, in the second sentence /pugna-nt\ is in the third person
plural.

_28._ RULE. Agreement of Verb. _A finite verb must always be in the
same person and number as its subject._

_29._ RULE. _In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person
singular active ends in -t, the third person plural in -nt. The
endings which show the person and number of the verb are called
/personal endings\._

_30._ Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The
personal pronouns _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., which are necessary in the
inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the
personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb's subject is
expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus
/nauta pugnat\ is translated _the sailor fights_, not _the sailor he
fights_.

  ama-t _he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love_ (amity, amiable)
  labo:'ra-t " " " _labors, is laboring, does labor_
  nu:ntia-t[2] " " " _announces, is announcing, does announce_
  porta-t " " " _carries, is carrying, does carry_ (porter)
  pugna-t " " " _fights, is fighting, does fight_ (pugnacious)

    [Footnote 2: The _u_ in /nu:ntio:\ is long by exception.
    (Cf. Sec. 12.2.)]

_31._ EXERCISES

I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying,
the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The
girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying,
the lady carries.

II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant.
3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Filia laborat, filiae
laborant. 5. Nauta nuntiat, nautae nuntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina
amat.

  [Illustration: DOMINA]


LESSON III

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

_32._ Declension of Nouns. We learned above (Secs. 19, 20) the
difference between the subject and object, and that in English they
may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the
order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence _The
lady her daughter loves_ might mean either that the lady loves her
daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady.

  1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the
  subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the
  words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the
  following sentences:

  Domina filiam amat
  Filiam domina amat
  Amat filiam domina
  Domina amat filiam
    _The lady loves her daughter_

  Filia dominam amat
  Dominam filia amat
  Amat dominam filia
  Filia amat dominam
    _The daughter loves the lady_

    _a._ Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in
    -a and the object in -am. The _form_ of the noun shows how it is
    used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on
    the essential meaning.

  2. As stated above (Sec. 23), this change of ending is called
  /declension\, and each different ending produces what is called a
  /case\. When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or
  changes of endings. In English we have three cases,--nominative,
  possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective
  have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of
  ending, by adding _'s_ or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun,
  however, has the fuller declension, _who?_ _whose?_ _whom?_

_33._ The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin
declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized:

          ENGLISH CASES                         LATIN CASES
  +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+
  |   | Declension  | Name of case | Declension of    | Name of case   |
  |   | of _who?_   | and use      | /domina\         |   and use      |
  |   |             |              | and translation  |                |
  +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+
  |   | Who?        | Nominative-- | do'min-a         | Nominative--   |
  | S |             |  case of the |  _the lady_      |  case of the   |
  | I |             |  subject     |                  |  subject       |
  | N |             |              |                  |                |
  | G | Whose?      | Possessive-- | domin-ae         | Genitive--     |
  | U |             |  case of the |  _the lady's_    |  case of the   |
  | L |             |  possessor   |  _of the lady_   |  possessor     |
  | A |             |              |                  |                |
  | R | Whom?       | Objective--  | domin-am         | Accusative--   |
  |   |             |  case of the |  _the lady_      |  case of the   |
  |   |             |  object      |                  |  direct object |
  +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+
  |   | Who?        | Nominative-- | domin-ae         | Nominative--   |
  |   |             |  case of the | _the ladies_     |  case of the   |
  | P |             |  subject     |                  |  subject       |
  | L |             |              |                  |                |
  | U | Whose?      | Possessive-- | domin-a:'rum     | Genitive--     |
  | R |             |  case of the |  _the ladies'_   | case of the    |
  | A |             |  possessor   |  _of the ladies_ | possessor      |
  | L |             |              |                  |                |
  |   | Whom?       | Objective--  | domin-a:s        | Accusative--   |
  |   |             |  case of the |  _the ladies_    |  case of the   |
  |   |             |  object      |                  |  direct object |
  +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+

When the nominative singular of a noun ends in -a, observe that

    _a._ The nominative plural ends in -ae.

    _b._ The genitive singular ends in -ae and the genitive plural in
    -a:rum.

    _c._ The accusative singular ends in -am and the accusative plural
    in -a:s.

    _d._ The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same
    ending.

_34._ EXERCISE

Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give
the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form
stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses.

1. Silva, silvas, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrarum,
terrae, terras. 4. Aquas, causam, lunas. 5. Filiae, fortunae, lunae.
6. Iniurias, agricolarum, aquarum. 7. Iniuriarum, agricolae, puellas.
8. Nautam, agricolas, nautas. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvarum.


LESSON IV

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  [See Transcriber's Note at beginning of text.]

  NOUNS
  /dea\, _goddess_ (deity)
   Dia:'na, _Diana_
  /fera\, _a wild beast_ (fierce)
   La:to:'na, _Latona_
  /sagit'ta\, _arrow_

  VERBS
  /est\, _he (she, it) is_; /sunt\, _they are_
  /necat\, _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_

  CONJUNCTION[A]
  /et\, _and_

  PRONOUNS
  /quis\, interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_
  /cuius\ (pronounced _c[oo]i'y[oo]s_, two syllables), interrog.
    pronoun, gen. sing., _whose?_

    [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts
    of sentences, or sentences.]

_35._ We learned from the table (Sec. 33) that the Latin nominative,
genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative,
possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same
way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence:

  Filia agricolae nautam amat,
    _the farmer's daughter_ (or _the daughter of the farmer_)
    _loves the sailor_

What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the
subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what
case is it?

_36._ RULE. Nominative Subject. _The subject of a finite verb is in
the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?_

_37._ RULE. Accusative Object. _The direct object of a transitive verb
is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?_

_38._ RULE. Genitive of the Possessor. _The word denoting the owner or
possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question
Whose?_

  [Illustration: DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT]

_39._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. 1. Diana est dea. 2. Latona est dea. 3. Diana et Latona sunt deae.
4. Diana est dea lunae. 5. Diana est filia Latonae. 6. Latona Dianam
amat. 7. Diana est dea silvarum. 8. Diana silvam amat. 9. Diana sagittas
portat. 10. Diana feras silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrarum pugnant.

For the order of words imitate the Latin above.

II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona's
daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers' daughters do labor. 4. The
farmer's daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is
announcing the girls' flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors' wrongs.
7. The farmer's daughter labors. 8. Diana's arrows are killing the wild
beasts of the land.

_40._ CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be
found in the exercises preceding.

  1. Quis est Diana?
  2. Cuius filia est Diana?
  3. Quis Dianam amat?
  4. Quis silvam amat?
  5. Quis sagittas portat?
  6. Cuius filiae laborant?


LESSON V

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /coro:'na\, _wreath, garland, crown_
   fa:'bula, _story_ (fable)
  /pecu:'nia\, _money_ (pecuniary)
  /pugna\, _battle_ (pugnacious)
  /victo:'ria\, _victory_

  VERBS
  /dat\, _he (she, it) gives_
   na:rrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate)

  CONJUNCTION[A]
  /quia\ or /quod\, _because_

  /cui\ (pronounced _c[oo]i_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat.
    sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_

    [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts
    of sentences, or sentences.]

_41._ The Dative Case. In addition to the relationships between words
expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative
(objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in
English we use such words as _from_, _with_, _by_, _to_, _for_, _in_,
_at_.[1]

    [Footnote 1: Words like _to_, _for_, _by_, _from_, _in_, etc., which
    define the relationship between words, are called /prepositions\.]

Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it
expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which
English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension
and lacking in English is called the _dative_.

_42._ When the nominative singular ends in -a, the dative singular
ends in -ae and the dative plural in -i:s.

NOTE. Observe that the _genitive singular_, the _dative singular_, and
the _nominative plural_ all have the same ending, -ae; but the uses of
the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the
sentence usually makes clear which case is intended.

    _a._ Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns:
    /fuga\, /causa\, /fortuna\, /terra\, /aqua\, /puella\, /agricola\,
    /nauta\, /domina\.

_43._ The Dative Relation. The dative case is used to express the
relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _to_, _towards_,
_for_.

These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion,
such as _She went to town_, _He ran towards the horse_, _Columbus sailed
for America_. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as _motion
through space_ is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used
to denote that _to_ or _towards which_ a benefit, injury, purpose,
feeling, or quality is directed, or that _for which_ something serves or
exists.

    _a._ What dative relations do you discover in the following?

The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all
her questions--a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us
to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me.
Some are fitted for one thing and others for another.

_44._ The Indirect Object. Examine the sentence

  Nauta fugam nuntiat,
    _the sailor announces the flight_

Here the verb, /nuntiat\, governs the direct object, /fugam\, in the
accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons /to whom\
the sailor announces the flight, as, _The sailor announces the flight
/to the farmers\_, the verb will have two objects:

  1. Its direct object, _flight_ (fugam)
  2. Its indirect object, _farmers_

According to the preceding section, _to the farmers_ is a relation
covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule:

_45._ RULE. Dative Indirect Object. _The indirect object of a verb is
in the Dative._

    _a._ The indirect object usually stands before the direct object.

_46._ We may now complete the translation of the sentence _The sailor
announces the flight to the farmers_, and we have

  Nauta agricolis fugam nuntiat

_47._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

_Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the
possessor._

I. 1. Quis nautis pecuniam dat? 2. Filiae agricolae nautis pecuniam
dant. 3. Quis fortunam pugnae nuntiat? 4. Galba agricolis fortunam
pugnae nuntiat. 5. Cui domina fabulam narrat? 6. Filiae agricolae domina
fabulam narrat. 7. Quis Dianae coronam dat? 8. Puella Dianae coronam dat
quia Dianam amat. 9. Dea lunae sagittas portat et feras silvarum necat.
10. Cuius victoriam Galba nuntiat? 11. Nautae victoriam Galba nuntiat.

Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise.

II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to
Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies[2] a
story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his
(Sec. 22.a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle
to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the
forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana's.

    [Footnote 2: Observe that in English the indirect object often
    stands without a preposition _to_ to mark it, especially when it
    precedes the direct object.]


LESSON VI

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  ADJECTIVES
  /bona\, _good_
  /gra:ta\, _pleasing_
  /magna\, _large, great_
  /mala\, _bad, wicked_
  /parva\, _small, little_
  /pulchra\, _beautiful, pretty_
  /so:la\, _alone_

  NOUNS
  ancil'la, _maidservant_
  Iu:lia, _Julia_

  ADVERBS[A]
  /cu:r\, _why_
  /no:n\, _not_

  PRONOUNS
  /mea\, _my_; /tua\, _thy, your_ (possesives)
  /quid\, interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_

  /-ne\, the question sign, an enclitic (Sec. 16) added to the first
    word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as /amat\, _he
    loves_, but /amat'ne\? _does he love?_ /est\, _he is_; /estne\?
    _is he?_ Of course /-ne\ is not used when the sentence contains
    /quis\, /cu:r\, or some other interrogative word.

    [Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an
    adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is
    _very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.]

_48._ The Ablative Case. Another case, lacking in English but found in
the fuller Latin declension, is the _ab'la-tive._

_49._ When the nominative singular ends in -a, the ablative singular
ends in -a: and the ablative plural in -i:s.

    _a._ Observe that the final -a of the nominative is short, while the
    final -a: of the ablative is long, as,

      Nom.  filia
      Abl.  filia:

    _b._ Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.

    _c._ Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns:
    /fuga\, /causa\, /fortuna\, /terra\, /aqua\, /puella\, /agricola\,
    /nauta\, /domina\.

_50._ The Ablative Relation. The ablative case is used to express the
relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _from_, _with_, _by_,
_at_, _in_. It denotes

  1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of
  which it is deprived--generally translated by _from_.

  2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is
  done--translated by _with_ or _by_.

  3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by
  _in_ or _at_.

    _a._ What ablative relations do you discover in the following?

      In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight
      o'clock they come from home with their books, and while they are
      at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans.
      By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be
      overcome.

_51._ Prepositions. While, as stated above (Sec. 41), many relations
expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case
forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the
accusative or ablative.

_52._ RULE. Object of a Preposition. _A noun governed by a preposition
must be in the Accusative or Ablative case._

_53._ Prepositions denoting the ablative relations _from, with, in, on_,
are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are

  a:[1] or ab, _from, away from_
  de:, _from, down from_
  e:[1] or ex, _from, out from, out of_
  cum, _with_
  in, _in, on_

    [Footnote 1: /a:\ and /e:\ are used only before words beginning with
    a consonant; /ab\ and /ex\ are used before either vowels or
    consonants.]

  1. _Translate into Latin, using prepositions._ In the water, on the
  land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from
  the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.

_54._ Adjectives. Examine the sentence

  Puella parva bonam deam amat,
    _the little girl loves the good goddess_

In this sentence /parva\ (_little_) and /bonam\ (_good_) are not nouns,
but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called
_adjectives_,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they
describe.

    [Footnote 2: _Pick out the adjectives in the following:_ "When I
    was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter's morning I was
    accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. 'My pretty
    boy,' said he, 'has your father a grindstone?' 'Yes, sir,' said I.
    'You are a fine little fellow,' said he. 'Will you let me grind my
    ax on it?'"]

You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The
ending of /parva\ shows that it belongs to /puella\, and the ending of
/bonam\ that it belongs to /deam\. Words that belong together are said
to agree, and the belonging-together is called _agreement_. Observe that
_the adjective and its noun agree in number and case_.

_55._ Examine the sentences

  Puella est parva,
    _the girl is little_
  Puella parva bonam deam amat,
    _the little girl loves the good goddess_

In the first sentence the adjective /parva\ is separated from its noun
by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a
_predicate adjective_. In the second sentence the adjectives /parva\ and
/bonam\ are closely attached to the nouns /puella\ and /deam\
respectively, and are called _attributive adjectives._

    _a._ Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the
    following:

Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy
students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.

_56._ DIALOGUE

JULIA AND GALBA

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

  I. Quis, Galba, est Diana?
  G. Diana, Iulia, est pulchra dea lunae et silvarum.
  I. Cuius filia, Galba, est Diana?
  G. Latonae filia, Iulia, est Diana.
  I. Quid Diana portat?
  G. Sagittas Diana portat.
  I. Cur Diana sagittas portat?
  G. Diana sagittas portat, Iulia, quod malas feras silvae magnae necat.
  I. Amatne Latona filiam?
  G. Amat, et filia Latonam amat.
  I. Quid filia tua parva portat?
  G. Coronas pulchras filia mea parva portat.
  I. Cui filia tua coronas pulchras dat?
  G. Dianae coronas dat.
  I. Quis est cum filia tua? Estne sola?
  G. Sola non est; filia mea parva est cum ancilla mea.

    _a._ When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called
    the _voc'ative_ (Latin _vocare_, "to call"). _In form the vocative
    is regularly like the nominative_. In English the name of the person
    addressed usually stands first in the sentence. _The Latin vocative
    rarely stands first_. Point out five examples of the vocative in
    this dialogue.

    _b._ Observe that questions answered by _yes_ or _no_ in English
    are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to
    answer in Latin the question _Is the sailor fighting?_ /Pugnatne
    nauta?\ you would say /Pugnat\, _he is fighting_, or /Non pugnat\,
    _he is not fighting._


LESSON VII

THE FIRST OR _A:_-DECLENSION

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /casa, -ae\, f., _cottage_
   ce:na, -ae, f., _dinner_
  /galli:'na, -ae\, f., _hen, chicken_
  /i:n'sula, ae\, f., _island_ (pen-insula)

  ADVERBS
  /de-in'de\, _then, in the next place_
  /ubi\, _where_

  PREPOSITION
  /ad\, _to_, with acc. to express motion toward

  PRONOUN
  /quem\, interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_

  VERBS
  ha'bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit)
  /laudat\, _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud)
  /parat\, _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_
  /vocat\, _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites,
    is inviting, does invite_ (vocation)

_57._ In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases,
singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a.
All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a belong to the
First Declension. It is also called the _A_-Declension because of the
prominent part which the vowel /a\ plays in the formation of the cases.
We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These
results are summarized in the following table:

+-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+
| CASE  | NOUN           |   TRANSLATION     | USE AND GENERAL MEANING |
|       |                |                   | OF EACH CASE            |
+-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+
|       |                |     SINGULAR      |                         |
+-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+
| Nom.  | do'min-a       | _the lady_        | The subject             |
|       |                |                   |                         |
| Gen.  | domin-ae       | _of the lady_,    | The possessor           |
|       |                |  or _the lady's_  |   of something          |
|       |                |                   |                         |
| Dat.  | domin-ae       | _to_ or _for      | Expressing the relation |
|       |                |  the lady_        |   _to_ or _for_,        |
|       |                |                   |   especially the        |
|       |                |                   |   indirect object       |
|       |                |                   |                         |
| Acc.  | domin-am       | _the lady_        | The direct object       |
|       |                |                   |                         |
| Abl.  | domin-a:       | _from, with, by,  | Separation (_from_),    |
|       |                |   in, the lady_   | association or means    |
|       |                |                   | (_with, by_), place     |
|       |                |                   | where or time when      |
|       |                |                   | (_in, at_)              |
+-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+
|       |                |      PLURAL       |                         |
+-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+
| Nom.  | domin-ae       | _the ladies_      |                         |
|       |                |                   |                         |
| Gen.  | domin-a:'rum   | _of the ladies_,  |                         |
|       |                |  or _the ladies'_ |                         |
|       |                |                   |                         |
| Dat.  | domin-i:s      | _to_ or _for      | The same as             |
|       |                |   the ladies_     |   the singular          |
|       |                |                   |                         |
| Acc.  | domin-a:s      | _the ladies_      |                         |
|       |                |                   |                         |
| Abl.  | domin-i:s      | _from, with, by_, |                         |
|       |                |  _in, the ladies_ |                         |
+-------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+

_58._ The Base. That part of a word which remains unchanged in
inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the base.

Thus, in the declension above, domin- is the base and -a is the
termination of the nominative singular.

_59._ Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base
from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally.

  /pugna\, /terra\, /luna\, /ancil'la\, /coro'na\, /in'sula\, /silva\

_60._ Gender. In English, names of living beings are either masculine
or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called
/natural gender\. Yet in English there are some names of things to which
we refer as if they were feminine; as, "Have you seen my yacht? _She_ is
a beauty." And there are some names of living beings to which we refer
as if they were neuter; as, "Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken
_it_ home." Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real
gender, and this is called /grammatical gender\.

Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually
masculine and of females feminine, but _names of things have grammatical
gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter_. Thus we have
in Latin the three words, /lapis\, _a stone_; /rupes\, _a cliff_; and
/saxum\, _a rock_. /Lapis\ is _masculine_, /rupes\ _feminine_, and
/saxum\ _neuter_. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of
the word, and _must always be learned_, for without knowing the gender
it is impossible to write correct Latin.

_61._ Gender of First-Declension Nouns. Nouns of the first declension
are feminine unless they denote males. Thus /silva\ is feminine, but
/nauta\, _sailor_, and /agricola\, _farmer_, are masculine.

_62._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

I. 1. Agricola cum filia in casa habitat. 2. Bona filia agricolae cenam
parat. 3. Cena est grata agricolae[1] et agricola bonam filiam laudat.
4. Deinde filia agricolae gallinas ad cenam vocat. 5. Gallinae filiam
agricolae amant. 6. Malae filiae bonas cenas non parant. 7. Filia
agricolae est grata dominae. 8. Domina in insula magna habitat.
9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecuniam dat.

II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small
cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives
with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting (parat) a good dinner
for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter's
good dinner is pleasing to the farmer.

    [Footnote 1: Note that the relation expressed by the dative case
    covers that _to which a feeling is directed._ (Cf. Sec. 43.)]

  [Illustration]

What Latin words are suggested by this picture?

_63._ CONVERSATION

Answer the questions in Latin.

  1. Quis cum agricola in casa habitat?
  2. Quid bona filia agricolae parat?
  3. Quem agricola laudat?
  4. Vocatne filia agricolae gallinas ad cenam?
  5. Cuius filia est grata dominae?
  6. Cui domina pecuniam dat?


LESSON VIII

FIRST DECLENSION (_Continued_)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /Italia, -ae\, f., _Italy_
   Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_
  /tuba, -ae\, f., _trumpet_ (tube)
  /via, -ae\, f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct)

  ADJECTIVES
  /alta\, _high, deep_ (altitude)
  /cla:ra\, _clear, bright; famous_
  /la:ta\, _wide_ (latitude)
  /longa\, _long_ (longitude)
  /nova\, _new_ (novelty)

_64._ We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together
and you have noticed an agreement between them in _case_ and in _number_
(Sec. 54). They agree also in _gender_. In the phrase /silva magna\, we
have a feminine adjective in -a agreeing with a feminine noun in -a.

_65._ RULE. Agreement of Adjectives. _Adjectives agree with their
nouns in gender, number, and case._

_66._ Feminine adjectives in -a are declined like feminine nouns in
-a, and you should learn to decline them together as follows:

          NOUN             ADJECTIVE
  domina (BASE domin-),  bona (BASE bon-),
    f., _lady_               _good_

        SINGULAR                TERMINATIONS
  Nom.  do'mina          bona        -a
  Gen.  dominae          bonae       -ae
  Dat.  dominae          bonae       -ae
  Acc.  dominam          bonam       -am
  Abl.  domina:          bona:       -a:

        PLURAL
  Nom.  dominae          bonae       -ae
  Gen.  domina:'rum      bona:'rum   -a:rum
  Dat.  domini:s         boni:s      -i:s
  Acc.  domina:s         bona:s      -a:s
  Abl.  domini:s         boni:s      -i:s

    _a._ In the same way decline together /puella mala\, _the bad girl_;
    /ancil'la parva\, _the little maid_; /fortu'na magna\, _great
    fortune._

_67._ The words /dea\, _goddess_, and /filia\, _daughter_, take the
ending -a:bus instead of -i:s in the _dative and ablative plural._
Note the _dative and ablative plural_ in the following declension:

  dea bona (BASES de- bon-)

        SINGULAR      PLURAL
  Nom.  dea bona      deae bonae
  Gen.  deae bonae    dea:'rum bona:'rum
  Dat.  deae bonae    dea:'bus boni:s
  Acc.  deam bonam    dea:s bona:s
  Abl.  dea: bona:    dea'bus boni:s

    _a._ In the same way decline together /filia parva\.

_68._ Latin Word Order. The order of words in English and in Latin
sentences is not the same.

In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the
sentence _My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers_, we cannot
alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can,
however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more
force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force
on _my, daughter, dinner, farmers_.

In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its
_ending_ (cf. Sec. 32.1), and not by its _position_, the order of words
is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in
English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can
alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare
the sentences

    _I saw a game of football at Chicago last November_ (normal order)
    _/Last November\ I saw a game of football at Chicago_
    _At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of /football\_

  1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the _first_; next in
  importance is the _last_; the weakest point is the _middle_. Generally
  the _subject_ is the most important word, and is placed _first_;
  usually the _verb_ is the next in importance, and is placed _last_.
  The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order
  of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where
  no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows:

    _subject_--_modifiers of the subject_--_indirect object_--
    _direct object_--_adverb_--_verb_

  Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire
  for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. _Notice the order of
  the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are
  turning English into Latin._

  2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after
  their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as

    filia mea, _my daughter_;
      mea filia, _/my\ daughter_;
    casa Galbae, _Galba's cottage_;
      Galbae casa, _/Galba's\ cottage_.

  Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following
  sentence in different ways:

    Filia mea agricolis cenam parat (normal order)
    Mea filia agricolis parat cenam (/mea\ and /cenam\ emphatic)
    Agricolis filia mea cenam parat (/agricolis\ emphatic)

  3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it
  follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated
  from its noun by other words.

    Filia mea casam parvam non amat (/parvam\ not emphatic)
    Filia mea parvam casam non amat (/parvam\ more emphatic)
    Parvam filia mea casam non amat (/parvam\ very emphatic)

  4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English.

  5. The copula (as /est\, /sunt\) is of so little importance that it
  frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds
  well.

_69._ EXERCISE

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

_Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that
are emphatic._

1. Longae non sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in mea casa? Non
sunt. 3. Quis lata in silva habitat? Diana, lunae clarae pulchra dea,
lata in silva habitat. 4. Nautae altas et latas amant aquas. 5. Quid
ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia
et Iulia? In tua casa est Lesbia et Iulia est in mea. 7. Estne Italia
lata terra? Longa est Italia, non lata. 8. Cui Galba agricola fabulam
novam narrat? Filiabus dominae clarae fabulam novam narrat. 9. Clara
est insula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Latona? Latona laudat filiam.

       *       *       *       *       *

  First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, Secs. 502-505

       *       *       *       *       *

LESSON IX

THE SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /bellum, -i:\, n., _war_ (re-bel)
  /co:nstantia, -ae\, f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_
   dominus, -i:, m., _master, lord_ (dominate)
  /equus, -i:\, m., _horse_ (equine)
  /fru:mentum, -i:\, n., _grain_
  /le:ga:tus, -i:\, m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate)
  /Ma:rcus, -i:\, m., _Marcus, Mark_
  /mu:rus, -i:\, m., _wall_ (mural)
  /oppida:nus, -i:\, m., _townsman_
  /oppidum, -i:\, n., _town_
  /pi:lum, -i:\, n., _spear_ (pile driver)
  /servus, -i:\, m., _slave, servant_
   Sextus, -i:, m., _Sextus_

  VERBS
  /cu:rat\, _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc.
  /properat\, _he (she, it) hastens_

_70._ Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.

The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of
the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the
nominative and the gender.

_71._ The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or _O_-Declension
ends in -us, -er, -ir, or -um. The genitive singular ends in
-i:.

_72._ Gender. Nouns in -um are neuter. The others are regularly
masculine.

_73._ Declension of nouns in -_us_ and -_um_. Masculines in -us and
neuters in -um are declined as follows:

        dominus (BASE domin-),  pi:lum (BASE pi:l-),
        m., _master_            n., _spear_

                  TERMINATIONS      TERMINATIONS
          SINGULAR
  Nom.  do'minus[1]  -us        pi:lum      -um
  Gen.  domini:      -i:        pi:li:      -i:
  Dat.  domino:      -o:        pi:lo:      -o:
  Acc.  dominum      -um        pi:lum      -um
  Abl.  domino:      -o:        pi:lo:      -o:
  Voc.  domine       -e         pi:lum      -um

          PLURAL
  Nom.  domini:      -i:        pi:la       -a
  Gen.  domino:'rum  -o:rum     pi:lo:'rum  -o:rum
  Dat.  domini:s     -i:s       pi:li:s     -i:s
  Acc.  domino:s     -o:s       pi:la       -a
  Abl.  domini:s     -i:s       pi:li:s     -i:s

    [Footnote 1: Compare the declension of /domina\ and of /dominus\.]

    _a._ Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same
    terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative
    and accusative plural.

    _b._ The vocative singular of words of the second declension in
    -us ends in -e, as /domine\, _O master_; /serve\, _O slave_.
    This is the most important exception to the rule in Sec. 56.a.

_74._ Write side by side the declension of /domina\, /dominus\, and
/pilum\. A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules,
which are of great importance because they apply to all five
declensions:

    _a._ The vocative, with a single exception (see Sec. 73.b), is
    like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the
    nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative
    plural.

    _b._ The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are
    alike, and in the plural end in -a.

    _c._ The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in
    -m and the accusative plural in -s.

    _d._ The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

    _e._ Final -i and -o are always _long_; final -a is _short_,
    except in the ablative singular of the first declension.

_75._ Observe the sentences

  Lesbia est bona,
    _Lesbia is good_
  Lesbia est ancilla,
    _Lesbia is a maidservant_

We have learned (Sec. 55) that /bona\, when used, as here, in the
predicate to describe the subject, is called a _predicate adjective_.
Similarly a _noun_, as /ancilla\, used in the _predicate_ to define the
subject is called a /predicate noun\.

_76._ RULE. Predicate Noun. _A predicate noun agrees in case with the
subject of the verb._

  [Illustration: PILA]

_77._ DIALOGUE

GALBA AND MARCUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

  G. Quis, Marce, est legatus cum pilo et tuba?
  M. Legatus, Galba, est Sextus.
  G. Ubi Sextus habitat?[2]
  M. In oppido Sextus cum filiabus habitat.
  G. Amantne oppidani Sextum?
  M. Amant oppidani Sextum et laudant, quod magna cum constantia pugnat.
  G. Ubi, Marce, est ancilla tua? Cur non cenam parat?
  M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equo legati aquam et frumentum dat.
  G. Cur non servus Sexti equum domini curat?
  M. Sextus et servus ad murum oppidi properant. Oppidani bellum
    parant.[3]

    [Footnote 2: /habitat\ is here translated _does live_. Note the
    _three_ possible translations of the Latin present tense:
      /habitat\
          _he lives_
          _he is living_
          _he does live_
    Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.]

    [Footnote 3: Observe that the verb /paro\ means not only
    _to prepare_ but also _to prepare for_, and governs the
    accusative case.]

  [Illustration: LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA]

_78._ CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin.

  1. Ubi filiae Sexti habitant?
  2. Quem oppidani amant et laudant?
  3. Quid ancilla equo legati dat?
  4. Cuius equum ancilla curat?
  5. Quis ad murum cum Sexto properat?
  6. Quid oppidani parant?


LESSON X

SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /ami:cus, -i:\, m., _friend_ (amicable)
  /Germa:nia, -ae\, f., _Germany_
  /patria, -ae\, f., _fatherland_
  /populus, -i:\, m., _people_
  /Rhe:nus, -i:\, m., _the Rhine_
  /vi:cus, -i:\, m., _village_

_79._ We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like /bona\, in
agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like
them. _Masculine_ adjectives of this class are declined like /dominus\,
and _neuters_ like pilum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter,
are therefore declined as follows:

  MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE          NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
  dominus bonus, _the good master_      pi:lum bonum, _the good spear_
    BASES domin- bon-                     BASES pi:l- bon-

                          TERMINATIONS               TERMINATIONS
          SINGULAR
  Nom.  do'minus bonus         -us      pi:lum bonum          -um
  Gen.  domini: boni:          -i:      pi:li: boni:          -i:
  Dat.  domino: bono:          -o:      pi:lo: bono:          -o:
  Acc.  dominum bonum          -um      pi:lum bonum          -um
  Abl.  domino: bono:          -o:      pi:lo: bono:          -o:
  Voc.  domine bone            -e       pi:lum bonum          -um

          PLURAL
  Nom.  domini: boni:          -i:      pi:la bona            -a
  Gen.  domino:'rum bono:'rum  -o:rum   pi:lo:'rum bono:'rum  -o:rum
  Dat.  domini:s boni:s        -is      pi:li:s boni:s        -i:s
  Acc.  domino:s bono:s        -o:s     pi:la bona            -a
  Abl.  domini:s boni:s        -i:s     pi:li:s boni:s        -i:s

Decline together /bellum longum\, /equus parvus\, /servus malus\,
/murus altus\, /frumentum novum\.

_80._ Observe the sentences

  Lesbia ancilla est bona,
    _Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_
  Filia Lesbiae ancillae est bona,
    _the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_
  Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat,
    _the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant_

In these sentences /ancilla\, /ancillae\, and /ancillam\ denote the
class of persons to which _Lesbia_ belongs and explain who she is. Nouns
so related that the second is only another name for the first and
explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same
case.

_81._ RULE. Apposition. _An appositive agrees in case with the noun
which it explains._

_82._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Patria servi boni, vicus servorum bonorum, bone popule. 2. Populus
oppidi magni, in oppido magno, in oppidis magnis. 3. Cum pilis longis,
ad pila longa, ad muros latos. 4. Legate male, amici legati mali, cena
grata domino bono. 5. Frumentum equorum parvorum, domine bone, ad
legatos claros. 6. Rhenus est in Germania, patria mea. 7. Sextus legatus
pilum longum portat. 8. Oppidani boni Sexto legato clara pecuniam dant.
9. Mali servi equum bonum Marci domini necant. 10. Galba agricola et
Iulia filia bona laborant. 11. Marcus nauta in insula Sicilia habitat.

II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba,
your master? 2. My friend is from (ex) a village of Germany, my
fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is
caring for[1] the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is
Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening[1] to the little cottage[2]
of Julia, the farmer's daughter.

    [Footnote 1: See footnote 1, p. 33. Remember that /curat\ is
    transitive and governs a direct object.]

    [Footnote 2: Not the dative. (Cf. Sec. 43.)]


LESSON XI

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /arma, armo:rum\, n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons
  /fa:ma, -ae\, f., _rumor; reputation, fame_
  /galea, -ae\, f., _helmet_
  /praeda, -ae\, f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory)
  /te:lum, -i:\, n., _weapon of offense, spear_

  ADJECTIVES
  /du:rus, -a, -um\, _hard,  rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_
    (durable)
  /Ro:ma:nus, -a, -um\, _Roman_. As a noun, /Ro:ma:nus, -i:\, m.,
    _a Roman_

_83._ Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the
three genders as follows:

        MASCULINE   FEMININE    NEUTER
        SINGULAR
  Nom.  bonus       bona        bonum
  Gen.  boni:       bonae       boni:
  Dat.  bono:       bonae       bono:
  Acc.  bonum       bonam       bonum
  Abl.  bono:       bona:       bono:
  Voc.  bone        bona        bonum

        PLURAL
  Nom.  boni:       bonae       bona
  Gen.  bono:rum    bona:rum    bono:rum
  Dat.  boni:s      boni:s      boni:s
  Acc.  bono:s      bona:s      bona
  Abl.  boni:s      boni:s      boni:s

    _a._ Write the declension and give it orally _across the page_, thus
    giving the three genders for each case.

    _b._ Decline /gratus, -a, -um\; /malus, -a, -um\; /altus, -a, -um\;
    /parvus, -a, -um\.

_84._ Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the
nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does
_not_ mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective
and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in
many cases, not be the same. For example, /nauta\, _sailor_, is
masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the
adjective /bonus\ is of the second declension. Consequently, _a good
sailor_ is /nauta bonus\. So, _the wicked farmer_ is /agricola malus\.
Learn the following declensions:

_85._  nauta bonus (bases naut- bon-), m., _the good sailor_

        SINGULAR
  Nom.  nauta      bonus
  Gen.  nautae     boni:
  Dat.  nautae     bono:
  Acc.  nautam     bonum
  Abl.  nauta:     bono:
  Voc.  nauta      bone

        PLURAL
  Nom.  nautae     boni:
  Gen.  nauta:rum  bono:rum
  Dat.  nauti:s    boni:s
  Acc.  nauta:s    bono:s
  Abl.  nauti:s    boni:s
  Voc.  nautae     boni:

_86._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Est[1] in vico nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amicus nautae boni.
3. Sextus nautae bono galeam dat. 4. Populus Romanus nautam bonum
laudat. 5. Sextus cum nauta bono praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone,
sunt arma et tela legati Romani? 7. Nautae boni ad bellum properant.
8. Fama nautarum bonorum est clara. 9. Pugnae sunt gratae nautis bonis.
10. Oppidani nautas bonos curant. 11. Cur, nautae boni, mali agricolae
ad Rhenum properant? 12. Mali agricolae cum bonis nautis pugnant.

II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty.
2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba's
daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites
the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor
hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good
sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the
wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good
sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are
fighting with the wicked farmers?

    [Footnote 1: /Est\, beginning a declarative sentence, _there is._]

  [Illustration: GALEAE]


LESSON XII

NOUNS IN _-IUS_ AND _-IUM_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /fi:lius, fi:li:\, m., _son_ (filial)
   fluvius, fluvi:, m., _river_ (fluent)
  /gladius, gladi:\, m., _sword_ (gladiator)
  /praesidium, praesi'di:\, n., _garrison, guard, protection_
  /proelium, proeli:\, n., _battle_

  ADJECTIVES
  /fi:nitimus, -a, -um\, _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_.
    As a noun, /fi:nitimi:, -o:rum\, m., plur., _neighbors_
  /Germa:nus, -a, -um\, _German_. As a noun, /Germa:nus, -i:\, m.,
    _a German_
  /multus, -a, -um\, _much_; plur., _many_

  ADVERB
  /saepe\, _often_

_87._ Nouns of the second declension in -ius and -ium end in -i: in
the genitive singular, _not_ in -ii:, and the accent rests on the
penult; as, /fi:li:\ from /fi:lius\ (_son_), /praesi'di:\ from
/praesi'dium\ (_garrison_).

_88._ Proper names of persons in -ius, and /fi:lius\, end in -i: in
the vocative singular, _not_ in -e, and the accent rests on the
penult; as, /Vergi'li:\, _O Vergil_; /fi:li:\, _O son._

    _a._ Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are
    alike.

_89._  praesidium (base praesidi-),  fi:lius (base fi:li-),
          n., _garrison_               m., _son_

          SINGULAR
  Nom.  praesidium                   fi:lius
  Gen.  praesi'di:                   fi:li:
  Dat.  praesidio:                   fi:lio:
  Acc.  praesidium                   fi:lium
  Abl.  praesidio:                   fi:lio:
  Voc.  praesidium                   fi:li:

The plural is regular. Note that the -i- of the base is lost only in
the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like /filius\.

Decline together /praesidium parvum\; /filius bonus\; /fluvius longus\,
_the long river_; /proelium clarum\, _the famous battle._

_90._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Frumentum bonae terrae, gladi mali, belli longi. 2. Constantia
magna, praesidia magna, clare Vergili. 3. Male serve, O clarum oppidum,
male fili, filii mali, fili mali. 4. Fluvi longi, fluvii longi,
fluviorum longorum, fama praesi'di magni. 5. Cum gladiis parvis, cum
deabus claris, ad nautas claros. 6. Multorum proeliorum, praedae magnae,
ad proelia dura.

GERMANIA

II. Germania, patria Germanorum, est clara terra. In Germania sunt
fluvii multi. Rhenus magnus et latus fluvius Germaniae est. In silvis
latis Germaniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germanii in oppidis magnis et
in vicis parvis habitant et multi sunt agricolae boni. Bella Germanorum
sunt magna et clara. Populus Germaniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe
cum finitimis pugnat. Fluvius Rhenus est finitimus oppidis[1] multis et
claris.

    [Footnote 1: Dative with /finitimus\. (See Sec. 43.)]


LESSON XIII

SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /ager, agri:\, m., _field_ (acre)
  /co:pia, -ae\, f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops,
    forces_
  /Corne:lius, Corne:'li:\, m., _Cornelius_
  /lo:ri:'ca, -ae\, f., _coat of mail, corselet_
  /praemium, praemi:\, n., _reward, prize_ (premium)
  /puer, pueri:\, m., _boy_ (puerile)
  /Ro:ma, -ae\, f., _Rome_
  /scu:tum, -i:\, n., _shield_ (escutcheon)
  /vir, viri:\, m., _man, hero_ (virile)

  ADJECTIVES
  /legio:na:rius, -a, -um\,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_.
    As a noun, /legio:na:rii:, -o:rum\, m., plur., _legionary soldiers_
  /li:ber, li:bera, li:berum\, _free_ (liberty) As a noun. /li:beri:,
    -o:rum\,
    m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_)
  /pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum\, _pretty, beautiful_

  PREPOSITION
  /apud\, _among_, with acc.

  CONJUNCTION
  /sed\, _but_

    [Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in -ius
    ends in -ii: and the vocative in -ie; not in -i:, as in nouns.]

_91._ Declension of Nouns in _-er_ and _-ir_. In early Latin all the
masculine nouns of the second declension ended in -os. This -os
later became -us in words like /servus\, and was dropped entirely in
words with bases ending in -r, like /puer\, _boy_; /ager\, _field_;
and /vir\, _man_. These words are therefore declined as follows:

_92._  puer, m., _boy_  ager, m., _field_  vir, m., _man_
         BASE puer-       BASE agr-          BASE vir-

        SINGULAR                                    TERMINATIONS
  Nom.  puer            ager               vir         ----
  Gen.  pueri:          agri:              viri:       -i:
  Dat.  puero:          agro:              viro:       -o:
  Acc.  puerum          agrum              virum       -um
  Abl.  puero:          agro:              viro:       -o:

        PLURAL
  Nom.  pueri:          agri:              viri:       -i:
  Gen.  puero:rum       agro:rum           viro:rum    -o:rum
  Dat.  pueri:s         agri:s             viri:s      -i:s
  Acc.  puero:s         agro:s             viro:s      -o:s
  Abl.  pueri:s         agri:s             viri:s      -i:s

    _a._ The vocative case of these words is like the nominative,
    following the general rule (Sec. 74.a).

    _b._ The declension differs from that of /servus\ only in the
    nominative and vocative singular.

    _c._ Note that in /puer\ the /e\ remains all the way through, while
    in /ager\ it is present only in the nominative. In /puer\ the /e\
    belongs to the base, but in /ager\ (base agr-) it does not, and
    was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most
    words in -er are declined like /ager\. _The genitive shows whether
    you are to follow_ /puer\ _or_ /ager\.

_93._ Masculine adjectives in -er of the second declension are
declined like nouns in -er. A few of them are declined like /puer\,
but most of them like /ager\. The feminine and neuter nominatives show
which form to follow, thus,

  MASC.    FEM.     NEUT.
  liber    libera   liberum   (_free_)
    is like /puer\
  pulcher  pulchra  pulchrum  (_pretty_)
    is like /ager\

For the full declension in the three genders, see Sec. 469._b._ _c._

_94._ Decline together the words /vir liber\, /terra libera\, /frumentum
liberum\, /puer pulcher\, /puella pulchra\, /oppidum pulchrum\

_95._ ITALIA[1]

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

Magna est Italiae fama, patriae Romanorum, et clara est Roma, domina
orbis terrarum.[2] Tiberim,[3] fluvium Romanum, quis non laudat et
pulchros fluvio finitimos agros? Altos muros, longa et dura bella,
claras victorias quis non laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agri boni
agricolis praemia dant magna, et equi agricolarum copiam frumenti ad
oppida et vicos portant. In agris populi Romani laborant multi servi.
Viae Italiae sunt longae et latae. Finitima Italiae est insula Sicilia.

    [Footnote 1: In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown
    by the order of the words.]

    [Footnote 2: /orbis terrarum\, _of the world_.]

    [Footnote 3: /Tiberim\, _the Tiber_, accusative case.]

_96._ DIALOGUE

MARCUS AND CORNELIUS

  C. Ubi est, Marce, filius tuus? Estne in pulchra terra Italia?
  M. Non est, Corneli, in Italia. Ad fluvium Rhenum properat cum copiis
    Romanis quia est[4] fama Novi belli cum Germanis. Liber Germaniae
    populus Romanos Non amat.
  C. Estne filius tuus copiarum Romanarum legatus?
  M. Legatus non est, sed est apud legionarios.
  C. Quae[5] arma portat[6]?
  M. Scutum magnum et loricam duram et galeam pulchram portat.
  C. Quae tela portat?
  M. Gladium et pilum longum portat.
  C. Amatne legatus filium tuum?
  M. Amat, et saepe filio meo praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat.
  C. Ubi est terra Germanorum?
  M. Terra Germanorum, Corneli est finitima Rheno, fluvio magno et alto.

    [Footnote 4: /est\, before its subject, _there is_; so /sunt\,
    _there are._]

    [Footnote 5: /Quae\, _what kind of_, an interrogative adjective
    pronoun.]

    [Footnote 6: What are the three possible translations of the present
    tense?]

  [Illustration: LEGIONARIUS]


LESSON XIV

THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /auxilium, auxi'li:\, n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary)
  /castrum, -i:\, n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_)
  /cibus, -i:\, m., _food_
  /co:nsilium, co:nsi'li:\, n., _plan_ (counsel)
  /di:ligentia, -ae\, f.. _diligence, industry_
   magister, magistri:, m., _master, teacher_[A]

  ADJECTIVES
  /aeger, aegra, aegrum\, _sick_
  /cre:ber, cre:bra, cre:brum\, _frequent_
  /miser, misera, miserum\, _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser)

    [Footnote A: Observe that /dominus\, as distinguished from
    /magister\, means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.]

_97._ Observe the sentences

  _This is my shield_
  _This shield is mine_

In the first sentence _my_ is a possessive adjective; in the second
_mine_ is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, _this
shield is mine_ being equivalent to _this shield is my shield_.
Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes _adjectives_ and
sometimes _pronouns_.

_98._ The possessives _my, mine, your, yours_, etc. are declined like
adjectives of the first and second declensions.

               SINGULAR
  _1st Pers._  meus, mea, meum          _my, mine_
  _2d Pers._   tuus, tua, tuum          _your, yours_
  _3d Pers._   suus, sua, suum          _his (own), her (own),
                                           its (own)_
               PLURAL
  _1st Pers._  noster, nostra, nostrum  _our, ours_
  _2d Pers._   vester, vestra, vestrum  _your, yours_
  _3d Pers._   suus, sua, suum          _their (own), theirs_

NOTE. /Meus\ has the irregular vocative singular masculine /mi:\, as
/mi: fi:li:\, _O my son_.

    _a._ The possessives agree with the name of the _thing possessed_ in
    gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in

      _Sextus is calling /his\ boy_  Sextus } suum puerum vocat
      _Julia is calling /her\ boy_   Iulia  }

    Observe that /suum\ agrees with /puerum\, and is unaffected by the
    gender of Sextus or Julia.

    _b._ When _your, yours_, refers to _one_ person, use /tuus\; when to
    _more than one_, /vester\; as,

      _Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty_
        Coronae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae
      _Girls, your wreaths are pretty_
        Coronae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae

    _c._ /Suus\ is a _reflexive_ possessive, that is, it usually stands
    in the predicate and regularly refers back to the _subject_. Thus,
    /Vir suos servos vocat\ means _The man calls his (own) slaves._ Here
    _his_ (suos) refers to _man_ (vir), and could not refer to any
    one else.

    _d._ Possessives are used much less frequently than in English,
    being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf.
    Sec. 22.a.) This is especially true of /suus, -a, -um\, which, when
    inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our _his own, her own_,
    etc.

_99._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

I. 1. Marcus amico Sexto consilium suum nuntiat 2. Est copia frumenti in
agris nostris. 3. Amici mei bonam cenam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua
lorica, mi fili, est dura. 5. Scuta nostra et tela, mi amice, in castrls
Romanis sunt. 6. Suntne viri patriae tuae liberi? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Corneli,
est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casa mea. 9. Pilum
longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iulia gallinas suas pulchras
amat et gallinae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra.
12. Est copia praedae in castris vestris. 13. Amici tui miseris et
aegris cibum et pecuniam saepe dant.

II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark's industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying
his booty to the Roman camp.[1] 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the
sick and wretched.[2] 4. There are [3] frequent battles in our villages.
5. My son, where is the lieutenant's food? 6. The camp is mine, but the
weapons are yours.

    [Footnote 1: Not the dative. Why?]

    [Footnote 2: Here the adjectives _sick_ and _wretched_ are used like
    nouns.]

    [Footnote 3: Where should /sunt\ stand? Cf. I. 2 above.]

  [Illustration: AGRICOLA ARAT]


LESSON XV

THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _WITH_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /carrus, -i:\, m., _cart, wagon_
  /inopia, -ae\, f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of /co:pia\
  /studium, studi:\, n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study)

  ADJECTIVES
  /arma:tus, -a, -um\, _armed_
  /i:nfi:rmus, -a, -um\, _week, feeble_ (infirm)
   vali'dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_

  VERB
  /ma:tu:rat\, _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat

  ADVERB
  /iam\, _already, now_

  /-que\, conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. Sec. 16) and always added
  to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as /arma tela'que\,
  _arms and weapons_.

_100._ Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (Sec. 50)
there is none more important than that expressed in English by the
preposition _with_. This little word is not so simple as it looks.
It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be
translated by /cum\. This will become clear from the following
sentences:

  _a._ Mark is feeble _with_ (_for_ or _because of_) want of food
  _b._ Diana kills the beasts _with_ (or _by_) her arrows
  _c._ Julia is _with_ Sextus
  _d._ The men fight _with_ great steadiness

    _a._ In sentence _a_, _with want_ (_of food_) gives the cause of
    Mark's feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative
    without a preposition, and the construction is called the /ablative
    of cause\:

      Marcus est infirmus inopia cibi

    _b._ In sentence _b_, _with_ (or _by_) _her arrows_ tells /by means
    of what\ Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by
    the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called
    the /ablative of means\:

      Diana sagittis suis feras necat

    _c._ In sentence _c_ we are told that Julia is not alone, but /in
    company with\ Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the
    ablative with the preposition /cum\, and the construction is called
    the /ablative of accompaniment\:

      Iulia est cum Sexto

    _d._ In sentence _d_ we are told how the men fight. The idea is one
    of /manner\. This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with /cum\,
    unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case /cum\
    may be omitted. This construction is called the /ablative of
    manner\:

      Viri (cum) constantia magna pugnant

_101._ You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative
denoting _with_:

_102._ RULE. Ablative of Cause. _Cause is denoted by the ablative
without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?_

_103._ RULE. Ablative of Means. _Means is denoted by the ablative
without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what?
With what?_

N.B. /Cum\ must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or
means.

_104._ RULE. Ablative of Accompaniment. _Accompaniment is denoted by
the ablative with /cum\. This answers the question With whom?_

_105._ RULE. Ablative of Manner. _The ablative with /cum\ is used to
denote the manner of an action. /Cum\ may be omitted, if an adjective is
used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?_

_106._ What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following
passage, and what question does each answer?

The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the
gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din,
attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the
stream was swollen with (_or_ by) the rain. Because of this many were
swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue,
with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore.

_107._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

I. _The Romans prepare for War._ Romani, clarus Italiae populus, bellum
parant. Ex agris suis, vicis, oppidisque magno studio viri validi ad
arma properant. Iam legati cum legionariis ex Italia ad Rhenum, fluvium
Germaniae altum et latum, properant, et servi equis et carris cibum
frumentumque ad castra Romana portant. Inopia bonorum telorum infirmi
sunt Germani, sed Romani armati galeis, loricis, scutis, gladiis,
pilisque sunt validi.

II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great
diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting
with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears.
4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in
Galba's cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of
food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening
with horses and wagons.


LESSON XVI

THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

_108._ There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second
declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and
dative singular of all genders:

           MASC.  FEM.   NEUT.
  Gen.   -i:us   -i:us   -i:us
  Dat.   -i:     -i:     -i:

Otherwise they are declined like /bonus, -a, -um\. Learn the list and
the meaning of each:

  /alius, alia, aliud\, _other, another_ (of several)
  /alter, altera, alterum\, _the one, the other_ (of two)
  /u:nus, -a, -um\, _one, alone_; (in the plural) _only_
  /u:llus, -a, -um\, _any_
  /nu:llus, -a, -um\, _none, no_
  /so:lus, -a, -um\, _alone_
  /to:tus, -a, -um\, _all, whole, entire_
  /uter, utra, utrum\, _which?_ (of two)
  /neuter, neutra, neutrum\, _neither_ (of two)

_109._ PARADIGMS

          SINGULAR
          MASC.     FEM.        NEUT.
  Nom.  nu:llus     nu:lla      nu:llum
  Gen.  nu:lli:'us  nu:lli:'us  nu:lli:'us
  Dat.  nu:lli:     nu:lli:     nu:lli:
  Acc.  nu:llum     nu:llam     nu:llum
  Abl.  nu:llo:     nu:lla:     nu:llo:

          MASC.     FEM.        NEUT.
  Nom.  alius       alia        aliud
  Gen.  ali:'us     ali:'us     ali:'us
  Dat.  alii:       alii:       alii:
  Acc.  alium       aliam       aliud
  Abl.  alio:       alia:       alio:

  THE PLURAL IS REGULAR

    _a._ Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in -d of /alius\.
    The genitive /ali:us\ is rare. Instead of it use /alteri:us\, the
    genitive of /alter\.

    _b._ These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension
    of pronouns (see Sec. 114). For this reason these adjectives are
    sometimes called the /pronominal adjectives\.

_110._ Learn the following idioms:

  /alter, -era, -erum\ ... /alter, -era, -erum\, _the one ... the other_
    (of two)
  /alius, -a, -ud\ ... /alius, -a, -ud\, _one ... another _ (of any
    number)
  /alii, -ae, -a\ ... /alii, -ae, -a\, _some ... others_

EXAMPLES

  1. Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum, _the one town is
  large, the other small_ (of two towns).

  2. Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud infirmum, _one town is strong,
  another weak_ (of towns in general).

  3. Alii gladios, alii scuta portant, _some carry swords, others
  shields._

_111._ EXERCISES

I. 1. In utra casa est Iulia? Iulia est in neutra casa. 2. Nulli malo
puero praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola.
4. Alii viri aquam, alii terram amant. 5. Galba unus (_or_ solus) cum
studio laborat. 6. Estne ullus carrus in agro meo? 7. Lesbia est ancilla
alterius domini, Tullia alterius. 8. Lesbia sola cenam parat. 9. Cena
nullius alterius ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nulli alii viro cenam
dat.

NOTE. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before
and not after their nouns.

II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are
great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses.
4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is
suffering for (i.e. _weak because of_) lack of food. 6. The people are
already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no
lack of grain.


LESSON XVII

THE DEMONSTRATIVE _IS, EA, ID_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /agri: cultu:ra, -ae\, f., _agriculture_
  /Gallia, -ae\, f., _Gaul_
  /domicili:um, domi:ci'li:\, n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_
  /Gallus, -i\, m., _a Gaul_
  /lacrima, -ae\, f., _tear_
  /fe:mina, -ae\, f., _woman_ (female)
  /numerus, -i:\, m., _number_ (numeral)

  ADJECTIVE
  /ma:tu:rus, -a, -um\, _ripe, mature_

  ADVERB
   quo:, _whither_

  VERBS
   arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable)
  /de:si:derat\, _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc.

  CONJUNCTION
  /an\, _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as
    _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, /Estne Romanus an Gallus?\

_112._ A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely,
as _this, that, these, those_. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as,
_Do you hear these?_ and sometimes adjectives, as, _Do you hear these
men?_ In the former case they are called /demonstrative pronouns\, in
the latter /demonstrative adjectives\.

_113._ Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as _pronouns_ and
as _adjectives_. The one used most is

  /is\, masculine; /ea\, feminine; /id\, neuter
  SINGULAR: _this, that_; PLURAL: _these, those_

_114._ /Is\ is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of
/alius\, Sec. 109.

  BASE e-

        SINGULAR              PLURAL
        MASC.  FEM.   NEUT.   MASC.        FEM.     NEUT.
  Nom.  is     ea     id      ei:          eae      ea
                               (_or_ ii:)
  Gen.  eius   eius   eius    eo:rum       ea:rum   eo:rum
  Dat.  ei:    ei:    ei:     ei:s         ei:s     ei:s
                               (_or_ ii:s   ii:s     ii:s)
  Acc.  eum    eam    id      eo:s         ea:s     ea
  Abl.  eo:    ea:    eo:     ei:s         ei:s     ei:s
                               (_or_ ii:s   ii:s     ii:s)

Note that the base e- changes to i- in a few cases. The genitive
singular /eius\ is pronounced _eh'yus_. In the plural the forms with two
/i\'s are preferred and the two /i\'s are pronounced as one. Hence,
pronounce /ii:\ as /i:\ and /ii:s\ as /i:s\.

_115._ Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the
Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun _he,
she, it_. As a personal pronoun, then, /is\ would have the following
meanings:

  SINGULAR
  Nom. is, _he_; ea, _she_; id, _it_
  Gen. eius, _of him_ or _his_;
       eius, _of her, her_, or _hers_;
       eius, _of it_ or _its_
  Dat. ei:, _to_ or _for him_;
       ei:, _to_ or _for her_;
       ei:, _to_ or _for it_
  Acc. eum, _him_; eam, _her_; id, _it_
  Abl. eo:, _with, from_, etc., _him_;
       ea:, _with, from_, etc., _her_;
       eo:, _with, from_, etc., _it_

  PLURAL
  Nom. ei: or ii:, eae, ea, _they_
  Gen. eo:rum, ea:rum, eo:rum, _of them, their_
  Dat. ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s,
          _to_ or _for them_
  Acc. eo:s, ea:s, ea, _them_
  Abl. ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s,
          _with, from_, etc., _them_

_116._ Comparison between _suus_ and _is_. We learned above (Sec. 98.c)
that /suus\ is a _reflexive_ possessive. When _his, her_ (poss.), _its,
their_, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express _his,
her, its_ by /eius\, the genitive singular of /is\, /ea\, /id\; and
_their_ by the genitive plural, using /eorum\ to refer to a masculine
or neuter antecedent noun and /earum\ to refer to a feminine one.

EXAMPLES

  _Galba calls his_ (own) _son_,
    Galba suum filium vocat
  _Galba calls his son_ (not his own, but another's),
    Galba eius filium vocat
  _Julia calls her_ (own) _children_,
    Iulia suos liberos vocat
  _Julia calls her children_ (not her own, but another's),
    Iulia eius liberos vocat
  _The men praise their_ (own) _boys_,
    viri suos pueros laudant
  _The men praise their boys_ (not their own, but others'),
    viri eorum pueros laudant

_117._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these
teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong
garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness,
those frequent plans.

4. The other woman is calling her chickens (_her own_). 5. Another woman
is calling her chickens (_not her own_). 6. The Gaul praises his arms
(_his own_). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (_not his own_). 8. This
farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their
master (_their own_). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master
(_not their own_). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They
love its villages and towns.

_118._ DIALOGUE[1]

CORNELIUS AND MARCUS

  M. Quis est vir, Corneli, cum puero parvo? Estne Romanus et liber?
  C. Romanus non est, Marce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in
    silvis Galliae.
  M. Estne puer filius eius servi an alterius?
  C. Neutrius filius est puer. Is est filius legati Sexti.
  M. Quo puer cum eo servo properat?
  C. Is cum servo properat ad latos Sexti agros.[2] Totum frumentum est
    iam maturum et magnus servorum numerus in Italiae[3] agris laborat.
  M. Agricolaene sunt Galli et patriae suae agros arant?
  C. Non agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Galli, non agri culturam. Apud eos
    viri pugnant et feminae auxilio liberorum agros arant parantque
    cibum.
  M. Magister noster pueris puellisque gratas Gallorum fabulas saepe
    narrat et laudat eos saepe.
  C. Mala est fortuna eorum et saepe miseri servi multis cum lacrimis
    patriam suam desiderant.

    [Footnote 1: There are a number of departures from the normal order
    in this dialogue. Find them, and give the reason.]

    [Footnote 2: When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an
    adjective, a favorite order of words is _adjective, genitive,
    noun_.]

    [Footnote 3: A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition
    and its object.]

       *       *       *       *       *

  Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, Secs. 506-509

       *       *       *       *       *

LESSON XVIII

CONJUGATION
THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF /SUM\

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
   lu:dus, -i:, m.,_school_
  /socius, soci:\, m., _companion, ally_ (social)

  ADJECTIVES
  /i:ra:tus, -a, -um\, _angry, furious_ (irate)
  /laetus, -a, -um\, _happy, glad_ (social)

  ADVERBS
   hodie:, _to-day_
  /ibi\, _there, in that place_
   mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future
  /nunc\, _now, the present moment_
  /nu:per\, _lately, recently_, of the immediate past

_119._ The inflection of a verb is called its _conjugation_ (cf. Sec.
23). In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different
meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and
auxiliaries, as, _I am carried, we have carried, they shall have
carried_, etc. In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal
pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In
this way the Romans expressed differences in _tense, mood, voice,
person_, and _number_.

_120._ The Tenses. The different forms of a verb referring to
different times are called its _tenses_. The chief distinctions of
time are present, past, and future:

  1. /The present\, that is, _what is happening now_, or
     _what usually happens_, is expressed by
        THE PRESENT TENSE

  2. /The past\, that is, _what was happening, used to happen,
      happened, has happened_, or _had happened_, is expressed by
        THE IMPERFECT, PERFECT, AND PLUPERFECT TENSES

  3. /The future\, that is, _what is going to happen_, is expressed by
        THE FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT TENSES

_121._ The Moods. Verbs have inflection of _mood_ to indicate the
manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the
_indicative, subjunctive, imperative_, and _infinitive_.

    _a._ A verb is in the _indicative_ mood when it makes a statement or
    asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we
    have used thus far are in the present indicative.

_122._ The Persons. There are three persons, as in English. The first
person is the person speaking (_I sing_); the second person the person
spoken to (_you sing_); the third person the person spoken of (_he
sings_). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in
the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal
endings (cf. Sec. 22 _a_; 29). We have already learned that -t is the
ending of the third person singular in the active voice and -nt of the
third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active
voice is as follows:

              SINGULAR                  PLURAL
  _1st Pers._ _I_             -m or -o:  _we_   -mus
  _2d Pers._  _thou_ or _you_ -s        _you_  -tis
  _3d Pers._  _he, she, it_   -t        _they_ -nt

_123._ Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and
are called _regular_ verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called
_irregular_. The verb _to be_ is irregular in Latin as in English. The
present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as
follows:

  PRESENT INDICATIVE
              SINGULAR                        PLURAL
  _1st Pers._ su-m, _I am_                    su-mus, _we are_
  _2d Pers._  e-s, _you[1] are_               es-tis, _you[1] are_
  _3d Pers._  es-t, _he, she_, or _it is_     su-nt,  _they are_

  IMPERFECT INDICATIVE
              SINGULAR                        PLURAL
  _1st Pers._ er-a-m, _I was_                 er-a:'-mus, _we were_
  _2d Pers._  er-a:-s, _you were_              er-a:'-tis, _you were_
  _3d Pers._  er-a-t, _he, she_, or _it was_  er-a:-nt,   _they were_

  FUTURE INDICATIVE
              SINGULAR                        PLURAL
  _1st Pers._ er-o:,   _I shall be_            er'-i-mus, _we shall be_
  _2d Pers._  er-i-s, _you will be_           er'-i-tis, _you will be_
  _3d Pers._  er-i-t, _he will be_            er-u-nt,   _they will be_

    _a._ Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and
    consult Secs. 12.2; 14; 15.

    [Footnote 1: Observe that in English _you are_, _you were_, etc. may
    be either singular or plural. In Latin the singular and plural forms
    are never the same.]

_124._ DIALOGUE

THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

  S. Ubi es, Marce? Ubi est Quintus? Ubi estis, amici?
  M. Cum Quinto, Sexte, in silva sum. Non soli sumus; sunt in silva
    multi alii pueri.
  S. Nunc laetus es, sed nuper non laetus eras. Cur miser eras?
  M. Miser eram quia amici mei erant in alio vico et eram solus. Nunc
    sum apud socios meos. Nunc laeti sumus et erimus.
  S. Eratisne in ludo hodie?
  M. Hodie non eramus in ludo, quod magister erat aeger.
  S. Eritisne mox in ludo?
  M. Amici mei ibi erunt, sed ego (_I_) non ero.
  S. Cur non ibi eris? Magister, saepe iratus, inopiam tuam studi
    diligentiaeque non laudat.
  M. Nuper aeger eram et nunc infirmus sum.

_125._ EXERCISE

1. You are, you were, you will be, (_sing. and plur._). 2. I am, I was,
I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall
be. 5. They are, they were, they will be.

6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a
sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am
happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of
the boys' industry.

  [Illustration: PUERI ROMANI IN LUDO]


LESSON XIX

THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS
PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMO:_ AND _MONEO:_

_126._ There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These
conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the
present conjugation-stem.[1] This vowel is called the _distinguishing
vowel_, and is best seen in the present infinitive.

    [Footnote 1: The _stem_ is the body of a word to which the
    terminations are attached. It is often identical with the base (cf.
    Sec. 58). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not
    appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional
    terminations. This point is further explained in Sec. 230.]

Below is given the _present infinitive_ of a verb of each conjugation,
the _present stem_, and the _distinguishing vowel._

                                                       DISTINGUISHING
  CONJUGATION    PRES. INFIN.            PRES. STEM    VOWEL
      I.         ama:'re, _to love_       ama:-            a:
     II.         mone:'re, _to advise_    mone:-           e:
    III.         re'gere, _to rule_      rege-           e
     IV.         audi:'re, _to hear_      audi-           i:

    _a._ Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by
    dropping -re, the ending of the present infinitive.

NOTE. The present infinitive of /sum\ is /esse\, and es- is the
present stem.

_127._ From the present stem are formed the _present_, _imperfect_, and
_future_ tenses.

_128._ The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and
of the second conjugation is as follows:

      a'mo:, ama:'re (_love_)       mo'neo:, mone:'re (_advise_)
      PRES. STEM ama:-             PRES. STEM mone:-

      SINGULAR                    PLURAL            PERSONAL ENDINGS
  1. a'mo:, _I love_               mo'neo:, _I advise_              -o:
  2. a'ma:s, _you love_            mo'ne:s, _you advise_            -s
  3. a'mat, _he (she, it) loves_  mo'net, _he (she, it) advises_  -t

  1. ama:'mus, _we love_           mone:'mus, _we advise_         -mus
  2. ama:'tis, _you love_          mone:'tis, _you advise_        -tis
  3. a'mant, _they love_          mo'nent, _they advise_         -nt

  1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to
  the present stem, and its first person uses -o and not -m. The
  form /amo:\ is for /ama-o:\, the two vowels /a-o:\ contracting to
  /o:\. In /moneo:\ there is no contraction. _Nearly all regular verbs
  ending in -eo belong to the second conjugation._

  2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before
  another vowel (mone:-o: = mo'neo:), and before final -t (amat,
  monet) and -nt (amant, monent). Compare Sec. 12.2.

_129._ Like /amo:\ and /moneo:\ inflect the present active indicative of
the following verbs[2]:

    [Footnote 2: The only new verbs in this list are the five of the
    second conjugation which are starred. Learn their meanings.]

  INDICATIVE PRESENT           INFINITIVE PRESENT
   a'ro, _I plow_               ara're, _to plow_
   cu'ro, _I care for_          cura're, _to care for_
  *de:'leo:, _I destroy_          de:le:'re, _to destroy_
   desi'dero, _I long for_      desidera're, _to long for_
   do,[3] _I give_              da're, _to give_
  *ha'beo:, _I have_             habe:'re, _to have_
   ha'bito, _I live, I dwell_   habita're, _to live, to dwell_
  *iu'beo:, _I order_            iube:'re, _to order_
   labo'ro, _I labor_           labora're, _to labor_
   lau'do, _I praise_           lauda're, _to praise_
   matu'ro, _I hasten_          matura're, _to hasten_
  *mo'veo:, _I move_             move:'re, _to move_
   nar'ro, _I tell_             narra're, _to tell_
   ne'co, _I kill_              neca're, _to kill_
   nun'tio, _I announce_        nuntia're, _to announce_
   pa'ro, _I prepare_           para're, _to prepare_
   por'to, _I carry_            porta're, _to carry_
   pro'pero, _I hasten_         propera're, _to hasten_
   pug'no, _I fight_            pugna're, _to fight_
  *vi'deo:, _I see_              vide:'re, _to see_
   vo'co, _I call_              voca're, _to call_

    [Footnote 3: Observe that in /do:, dare\, the /a\ is _short_, and
    that the present stem is da- and not da:-. The only forms of
    /do:\ that have a long are /da:s\ (pres. indic.), /da:\ (pres.
    imv.), and /da:ns\ (pres. part.).]

_130._ The Translation of the Present. In English there are three ways
of expressing present action. We may say, for example, _I live, I am
living_, or _I do live_. In Latin the one expression /habito\ covers all
three of these expressions.

_131._ EXERCISES

Give the _voice_, _mood_, _tense_, _person_, and _number_ of each form.

I. 1. Vocamus, properatis, iubent. 2. Movetis, laudas, vides.
3. Deletis, habetis, dant. 4. Maturas, desiderat, videmus. 5. Iubet,
movent, necat. 6. Narramus, moves, vident. 7. Laboratis, properant,
portas, parant. 8. Delet, habetis, iubemus, das.

N.B. Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in
translating a Latin verb form. Give that your first attention.

II. 1. We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2. They care for, they are
caring for, they do care for. 3. You give, you are having, you do have
(_sing_.). 4. We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5. He calls,
they see, we are telling. 6. We do fight, we order, he is moving, he
prepares. 7. They are laboring, we kill, you announce.


LESSON XX

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMO:_ AND _MONEO:_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /fo:rma, -ae\, f., _form, beauty_
  /regi:na, -ae\, f., _queen_ (regal)
  /poena, -ae\, f., _punishment, penalty_
   superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_
  /potentia, -ae\, f., _power_ (potent)
  /tri:sti:ti:a, -ae\, f., _sadness, sorrow_

  ADJECTIVES
  /septem\, indeclinable, _seven_
  /superbus, -a, -um\, _proud, haughty_ (superb)

   CONJUNCTIONS
  /no:n so:lum ... sed etiam\, _not only ... but also_

_132._ Tense Signs. Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express
differences in tense, like _was_, _shall_, _will_, etc., Latin adds to
the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs.
These are called _tense signs_.

_133._ Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect. The tense sign of
the imperfect is -ba:-, which is added to the present stem. The
imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts:

  PRESENT STEM  TENSE SIGN  PERSONAL ENDING
  ama:-        ba-       m
  _loving_      _was_       _I_

The inflection is as follows:

   CONJUGATION I                  CONJUGATION II
                                                               PERSONAL
   SINGULAR                                                    ENDINGS
1. ama:'bam, _I was loving_       mone:'bam, _I was advising_       -m
2. ama:'ba:s, _you were loving_   mone:'ba:s, _you were advising_   -s
3. ama:'bat, _he was loving_      mone:'bat, _he was advising_      -t

   PLURAL
1. ama:ba:'mus, _we were loving_  mone:ba:'mus, _we were advising_  -mus
2. ama:ba:'tis, _you were loving_ mone:ba:'tis, _you were advising_ -tis
3. ama:'bant, _they were loving_  mone:'bant, _they wereadvising_   -nt

    _a._ Note that the /a:\ of the tense sign -ba:- is shortened before
    -nt, and before /m\ and /t\ when final. (Cf. Sec. 12.2.)

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in Sec. 129.

_134._ Meaning of the Imperfect. The Latin imperfect describes an
act as _going on_ or _progressing in past time_, like the English
past-progressive tense (as, _I was walking_). It is the regular tense
used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs.

_135._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Videbamus, desiderabat, maturabas. 2. Dabant, vocabatis,
delebamus. 3. Pugnant, laudabas, movebatis. 4. Iubebant, properabatis,
portabamus. 5. Dabas, narrabant, laborabatis. 6. Videbant, movebas,
nuntiabamus. 7. Necabat, movebam, habebat, parabatis.

II. 1. You were having (_sing. and plur._), we were killing, they were
laboring. 2. He was moving, we were ordering, we were fighting. 3. We
were telling, they were seeing, he was calling. 4. They were living,
I was longing for, we were destroying. 5. You were giving, you were
moving, you were announcing, (_sing. and plur._). 6. They were caring
for, he was plowing, we were praising.

_136._ NI'OBE AND HER CHILDREN

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

Niobe, regina Thebanorum, erat pulchra femina sed superba. Erat superba
non solum forma[1] sua maritique potentia[1] sed etiam magno liberorum
numero.[1] Nam habebat[2] septem filios et septem filias. Sed ea
superbia erat reginae[3] causa magnae tristitiae et liberis[3] causa
durae poenae.

NOTE. The words /Niobe\, /Thebanorum\, and /mariti\ will be found in the
general vocabulary. Translate the selection without looking up any other
words.

    [Footnote 1: Ablative of cause.]

    [Footnote 2: Translate _had_; it denotes a past situation. (See
    Sec. 134.)]

    [Footnote 3: Dative, cf. Sec. 43.]


LESSON XXI

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMO:_ AND _MONEO:_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
   sacrum, -i:, n., _sacrifice, offering, rite_
  /verbum, -i:\, n., _word_ (verb)

  VERBS
   sedeo:, -e:re, _sit_ (sediment)
   volo:, -a:re, _fly_ (volatile)

  ADJECTIVES
  /interfectus, -a, -um\, _slain_
  /molestus, -a, -um\, _troublesome, annoying_ (molest)
  /perpetuus, -a, -um\, _perpetual, continuous_

  /ego\, personal pronoun, _I_ (egotism). Always emphatic in the
    nominative.

_137._ The tense sign of the Future Indicative in the first and second
conjugations is -bi-. This is joined to the present stem of the verb
and followed by the personal ending, as follows:

  PRESENT STEM  TENSE SIGN  PERSONAL ENDING
   ama:-          bi-         s
  _love_        _will_      _you_

_138._ The Future Active Indicative is inflected as follows.

     CONJUGATION I                CONJUGATION II
     SINGULAR
  1. ama:'bo:, _I shall love_     mone:'bo:, _I shall advise_
  2. ama:'bis, _you will love_    mone:'bis, _you will advise_
  3. ama:'bit, _he will love_     mone:'bit, _he will advise_

     PLURAL
  1. ama:'bimus, _we shall love_  mone:'bimus, _we shall advise_
  2. ama:'bitis _you will love_   mone:'bitis, _you will advise_
  3. ama:'bunt, _they will love_  mone:'bunt, _they will advise_

    _a._ The personal endings are as in the present. The ending -bo:
    in the first person singular is contracted from -bi-o:. The -bi-
    appears as -bu- in the third person plural. Note that the
    inflection is like that of /ero:\, the future of /sum\. _Pay
    especial attention to the accent._

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in Sec. 129.

_139._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Movebitis, laudabis, arabo. 2. Delebitis, vocabitis, dabunt.
3. Maturabis, desiderabit, videbimus. 4. Habebit, movebunt, necabit.
5. Narrabimus, monebis, videbunt. 6. Laborabitis, curabunt, dabis.
7. Habitabimus, properabitis, iubebunt, parabit. 8. Nuntiabo,
portabimus, iubebo.

II. 1. We shall announce, we shall see, I shall hasten. 2. I shall
carry, he will plow, they will care for. 3. You will announce, you will
move, you will give, (_sing. and plur._). 4. We shall fight, we shall
destroy, I shall long for. 5. He will call, they will see, you will tell
(_plur._). 6. They will dwell, we shall order, he will praise. 7. They
will labor, we shall kill, you will have (_sing. and plur._), he will
destroy.

_140._ NI'OBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apollo et Diana erant liberi Latonae. Iis Thebani sacra crebra
parabant.[1] Oppidani amabant Latonam et liberos eius. Id superbae
reginae erat molestum. "Cur," inquit, "Latonae et liberis sacra paratis?
Duos liberos habet Latona; quattuordecim habeo ego. Ubi sunt mea sacra?"
Latona iis verbis[2] irata liberos suos vocat. Ad eam volant Apollo
Dianaque et sagittis[3] suis miseros liberos reginae superbae delent.
Niobe, nuper laeta, nunc misera, sedet apud liberos interfectos et cum
perpetuis lacrimis[4] eos desiderat.

NOTE. Consult the general vocabulary for /Apollo\, /inquit\, /duos\, and
/quattuordecim\. Try to remember the meaning of all the other words.

    [Footnote 1: Observe the force of the imperfect here, _used to
    prepare_, _were in the habit of preparing_; so /amabant\ denotes a
    past situation of affairs. (See Sec. 134.)]

    [Footnote 2: Ablative of cause.]

    [Footnote 3: Ablative of means.]

    [Footnote 4: This may be either manner or accompaniment. It is often
    impossible to draw a sharp line between means, manner, and
    accompaniment. The Romans themselves drew no sharp distinction. It
    was enough for them if the general idea demanded the ablative case.]


LESSON XXII

REVIEW OF VERBS : THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /discipli:na, -ae\, f., _training, culture, discipline_
  /Ga:ius, Ga:i:\, m., _Caius_, a Roman first name
  /o:rna:mentum, -i:\, n., _ornament, jewel_
   Tiberius, Tibe'ri:, m., _Tiberius_, a Roman first name

  VERB
  /doceo:, -e:re\, _teach_ (doctrine)

  ADVERB
  /maxime:\, _most of all, especially_

  ADJECTIVE
  /anti:quus, -qua, -quum\, _old, ancient_ (antique)

_141._ Review the present, imperfect, and future active indicative, both
orally and in writing, of /sum\ and the verbs in Sec. 129.

_142._ We learned in Sec. 43 for what sort of expressions we may expect
the dative, and in Sec. 44 that one of its commonest uses is with
_verbs_ to express the indirect object. It is also very common with
_adjectives_ to express the object toward which the quality denoted by
the adjective is directed. We have already had a number of cases where
/gratus\, _agreeable to_, was so followed by a dative; and in the last
lesson we had /molestus\, _annoying to_, followed by that case. The
usage may be more explicitly stated by the following rule:

_143._ RULE. Dative with Adjectives. _The dative is used with adjectives
to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such
are, especially, those meaning /near\, also /fit\, /friendly\,
/pleasing\, /like\, and their opposites._

_144._ Among such adjectives memorize the following:

  ido:neus, -a, -um, _fit, suitable_ (for)
  ami:cus, -a, -um, _friendly_ (to)
  inimicus, -a, -um, _hostile_ (to)
  gra:tus, -a, -um, _pleasing_ (to), _agreeable_ (to)
  molestus, -a, -um, _annoying_ (to), _troublesome_ (to)
  fi:nitimus, -a, -um, _neighboring_ (to)
  proximus, -a, -um, _nearest, next_ (to)

_145._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Romani terram idoneam agri culturae habent. 2. Galli copiis
Romanis inimici erant. 3. Cui dea Latona amica non erat? 4. Dea Latona
superbae reginae amica non erat. 5. Cibus noster, Marce, erit armatis
viris gratus. 6. Quid erat molestum populis Italiae? 7. Bella longa cum
Gallis erant molesta populis Italiae. 8. Agri Germanorum fluvio Rheno
finitimi erant. 9. Romani ad silvam oppido proximam castra movebant.
10. Non solum forma sed etiam superbia reginae erat magna. 11. Mox
regina pulchra erit aegra tristitia. 12. Cur erat Niobe, regina
Thebanorum, laeta? Laeta erat Niobe multis filiis et filiabus.

II. 1. The sacrifices of the people will be annoying to the haughty
queen. 2. The sacrifices were pleasing not only to Latona but also to
Diana. 3. Diana will destroy those hostile to Latona. 4. The punishment
of the haughty queen was pleasing to the goddess Diana. 5. The Romans
will move their forces to a large field[1] suitable for a camp. 6. Some
of the allies were friendly to the Romans, others to the Gauls.

    [Footnote 1: Why not the dative?]

_146._ CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apud antiquas dominas, Cornelia, Africani filia, erat[2] maxime clara.
Filii eius erant Tiberius Gracchus et Gaius Gracchus. Ii pueri cum
Cornelia in oppido Roma, claro Italiae oppido, habitabant. Ibi eos
curabat Cornelia et ibi magno cum studio eos docebat. Bona femina erat
Cornelia et bonam disciplinam maxime amabat.

NOTE. Can you translate the paragraph above? There are no new words.

    [Footnote 2: Observe that all the imperfects denote continued or
    progressive action, or describe a state of affairs. (Cf. Sec. 134.)]


LESSON XXIII

PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGO:_ AND _AUDIO:_

_147._ As we learned in Sec. 126, the present stem of the third
conjugation ends in -e, and of the fourth in -i:. The inflection
of the Present Indicative is as follows:

     CONJUGATION III               CONJUGATION IV
     re'go:, re'gere (_rule_)      au'dio, audi:'re (_hear_)
     PRES. STEM rege-              PRES. STEM audi:-

     SINGULAR
  1. re'go:, _I rule_              au'dio:, _I hear_
  2. re'gis, _you rule_            au'di:s, _you hear_
  3. re'git, _he (she, it) rules_  au'dit, _he (she, it) hears_

     PLURAL
  1. re'gimus, _we rule_           audi:'mus, _we hear_
  2. re'gitis, _you rule_          audi:'tis, _you hear_
  3. re'gunt, _they rule_          au'diunt, _they hear_

  1. The personal endings are the same as before.

  2. The final short -e- of the stem rege- combines with the -o: in
  the first person, becomes -u- in the third person plural, and
  becomes -i- elsewhere. The inflection is like that of /ero:\, the
  future of /sum\.

  3. In /audio:\ the personal endings are added regularly to the stem
  audi:-. In the third person plural -u- is inserted between the stem
  and the personal ending, as /audi-u-nt\. Note that the long vowel of
  the stem is shortened before final -t just as in /amo\ and /moneo\.
  (Cf. Sec. 12.2.)

Note that -i- is always short in the third conjugation and long in
the fourth, excepting where long vowels are regularly shortened. (Cf.
Sec. 12.1, 2.)

_148._ Like /rego\ and /audio\ inflect the present active indicative of
the following verbs:

  INDICATIVE PRESENT  INFINITIVE PRESENT

  ago:, _I drive_      agere, _to drive_
  di:co:, _I say_       di:cere, _to say_
  du:co:, _I lead_      du:cere, _to lead_
  mitto:, _I send_     mittere, _to send_
  mu:nio:, _I fortify_  mu:ni:re, _to fortify_
  reperio:, _I find_   reperi:re, _to find_
  venio:, _I come_     veni:re, _to come_

_149._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis agit? Cur venit? Quem mittit? Quem ducis? 2. Quid mittunt? Ad
quem veniunt? Cuius castra muniunt? 3. Quem agunt? Venimus. Quid puer
reperit? 4. Quem mittimus? Cuius equum ducitis? Quid dicunt? 5. Munimus,
venitis, dicit. 6. Agimus, reperitis, munis. 7. Reperis, ducitis, dicis.
8. Agitis, audimus, regimus.

II. 1. What do they find? Whom do they hear? Why does he come? 2. Whose
camp are we fortifying? To whom does he say? What are we saying? 3. I am
driving, you are leading, they are hearing. 4. You send, he says, you
fortify (_sing. and plur._). 5. I am coming, we find, they send. 6. They
lead, you drive, he does fortify. 7. You lead, you find, you rule, (_all
plur._).

_150._ CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_)

Proximum domicilio Corneliae erat pulchrae Campanae domicilium. Campana
erat superba non solum forma sua sed maxime ornamentis suis. Ea[1]
laudabat semper. "Habesne tu ulla ornamenta, Cornelia?" inquit. "Ubi
sunt tua ornamenta?" Deinde Cornelia filios suos Tiberium et Gaium
vocat. "Pueri mei," inquit, "sunt mea ornamenta. Nam boni liberi sunt
semper bonae feminae ornamenta maxime clara."

NOTE. The only new words here are /Campana\, /semper\, and /tu\.

    [Footnote 1: /Ea\, accusative plural neuter.]

  [Illustration: "PUERI MEI SUNT MEA ORNAMENTA"]


LESSON XXIV

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGO:_ AND _AUDIO:_
THE DATIVE WITH SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE VERBS

_151._ PARADIGMS

     CONJUGATION III                 CONJUGATION IV
     SINGULAR
  1. rege:'bam, _I was ruling_       audie:'bam, _I was hearing_
  2. rege:'ba:s, _you were riding_   audie:'ba:s, _you were hearing_
  3. rege:'bat, _he was ruling_      audie:'bat, _he was hearing_

     PLURAL
  1. rege:ba:'mus, _we were ruling_   audie:ba:'mus, _we were hearing_
  2. rege:ba:'tis, _you were ruling_  audie:ba:'tis, _you were hearing_
  3. rege:'bant, _they were ruling_   audie:'bant, _they were hearing_

  1. The tense sign is -ba:-, as in the first two conjugations.

  2. Observe that the final -e- of the stem is lengthened before the
  tense sign -ba:-. This makes the imperfect of the third conjugation
  just like the imperfect of the second (cf. /mone:bam\ and /rege:bam\).

  3. In the fourth conjugation -e:- is inserted between the stem and
  the tense sign -ba:- (audi-e:-ba-m).

  4. In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in Sec. 148.

_152._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Agebat, veniebat, mittebat, ducebant. 2. Agebant, mittebant,
ducebas, muniebant. 3. Mittebamus, ducebatis, dicebant. 4. Muniebamus,
veniebatis, dicebas. 5. Mittebas, veniebamus, reperiebat. 6. Reperiebas,
veniebas, audiebatis. 7. Agebamus, reperiebatis, muniebat. 8. Agebatis,
dicebam, muniebam.

II. 1. They were leading, you were driving (_sing. and plur._), he was
fortifying. 2. They were sending, we were finding, I was coming. 3. You
were sending, you were fortifying, (_sing. and plur._), he was saying.
4. They were hearing, you were leading (_sing. and plur._), I was
driving. 5. We were saying, he was sending, I was fortifying. 6. They
were coming, he was hearing, I was finding. 7. You were ruling (_sing.
and plur._), we were coming, they were ruling.

_153._ The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs. We learned above
(Sec. 20.a) that a verb which does not admit of a direct object is
called an _intransitive_ verb. Many such verbs, however, are of such
meaning that they can govern an indirect object, which will, of
course, be in the dative case (Sec. 45). Learn the following list of
intransitive verbs with their meanings. In each case the dative indirect
object is the person or thing to which a benefit, injury, or feeling is
directed. (Cf. Sec. 43.)

  cre:do:, cre:dere, _believe_ (give belief to)
  faveo:, fave:re, _favor_ (show favor to)
  noceo:, noce:re, _injure_ (do harm to)
  pa:reo:, pa:re:re, _obey_ (give obedience to)
  persua:deo:, persua:de:re, _persuade_ (offer persuasion to)
  resisto:, resistere, _resist_ (offer resistance to)
  studeo:, stude:re, _be eager for_ (give attention to)

_154._ RULE. Dative with Intransitive Verbs. _The dative of the
indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs /credo\, /faveo\,
/noceo\, /pareo\, /persuadeo\, /resisto\, /studeo\, and others of like
meaning._

_155._ EXERCISE

1. Credisne verbis sociorum? Multi verbis eorum non credunt. 2. Mei
finitimi consilio tuo non favebunt, quod bello student. 3. Tiberius et
Gaius disciplinae durae non resistebant et Corneliae parebant. 4. Dea
erat inimica septem filiabus reginae. 5. Dura poena et perpetua
tristitia reginae non persuadebunt. 6. Nuper ea resistebat et nunc
resistit potentiae Latonae. 7. Mox sagittae volabunt et liberis miseris
nocebunt.


LESSON XXV

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGO:_ AND _AUDIO:_

_156._ In the future tense of the third and fourth conjugations we meet
with a new tense sign. Instead of using -bi-, as in the first and
second conjugations, we use -a:-[1] in the first person singular and
-e:- in the rest of the tense. In the third conjugation the final -e-
of the stem is dropped before this tense sign; in the fourth conjugation
the final -i:- of the stem is retained.[2]

    [Footnote 1: The -a:- is shortened before -m final, and -e:-
    before -t final and before -nt. (Cf. Sec. 12.2.)]

    [Footnote 2: The -i:- is, of course, shortened, being before
    another vowel. (Cf. Sec. 12.1.)]

_157._ PARADIGMS

     CONJUGATION III             CONJUGATION IV
     SINGULAR
  1. re'gam, _I shall rule_      au'diam, _I shall hear_
  2. re'ge:s, _you will rule_    au'die:s, _you will hear_
  3. re'get, _he will rule_      au'diet, _he will hear_

     PLURAL
  1. rege:'mus, _we shall rule_  audie:'mus, _we shall hear_
  2. rege:'tis, _you will rule_  audie:'tis, _you will hear_
  3. re'gent, _they will rule_   au'dient, _they will hear_

  1. Observe that the future of the third conjugation is like the
  present of the second, excepting in the first person singular.

  2. In the same manner inflect the verbs given in Sec. 148.

_158._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Dicet, ducetis, muniemus. 2. Dicent, dicetis, mittemus.
3. Munient, venient, mittent, agent. 4. Ducet, mittes, veniet, aget.
5. Muniet, reperietis, agemus. 6. Mittam, veniemus, regent. 7. Audietis,
venies, reperies. 8. Reperiet, agam, ducemus, mittet. 9. Videbitis,
sedebo, vocabimus.

II. 1. I shall find, he will hear, they will come. 2. I shall fortify,
he will send, we shall say. 3. I shall drive, you will lead, they will
hear. 4. You will send, you will fortify, (_sing. and plur._), he will
say. 5. I shall come, we shall find, they will send.

6. Who[3] will believe the story? I[4] shall believe the story. 7. Whose
friends do you favor? We favor our friends. 8. Who will resist our
weapons? Sextus will resist your weapons. 9. Who will persuade him?
They will persuade him. 10. Why were you injuring my horse? I was not
injuring your horse. 11. Whom does a good slave obey? A good slave obeys
his master. 12. Our men were eager for another battle.

    [Footnote 3: Remember that /quis\, _who_, is singular in number.]

    [Footnote 4: Express by /ego\, because it is emphatic.]


LESSON XXVI

VERBS IN _-IO:_ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION : THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

_159._ There are a few common verbs ending in -io: which do not belong
to the fourth conjugation, as you might infer, but to the third. The
fact that they belong to the third conjugation is shown by the ending of
the infinitive. (Cf. Sec. 126.) Compare

  audio:, audi:'re (_hear_), fourth conjugation
  capio:, ca'pere (_take_), third conjugation

_160._ The present, imperfect, and future active indicative of /capio:\
are inflected as follows:

  capio:, capere, _take_
  PRES. STEM cape-

     PRESENT     IMPERFECT        FUTURE
     SINGULAR
  1. ca'pio:     capie:'bam       ca'piam
  2. ca'pis      capie:'ba:s      ca'pie:s
  3. ca'pit      capie:'bat       ca'piet

     PLURAL
  1. ca'pimus    capie:ba:'mus    capie:'mus
  2. ca'pitis    capie:ba:'tis    capie:'tis
  3. ca'piunt    capie:'bant      ca'pient

  1. Observe that /capio:\ and the other -io: verbs follow the fourth
  conjugation wherever in the fourth conjugation _two vowels occur in
  succession._ (Cf. capio:, audio:; capiunt, audiunt; and all the
  imperfect and future.) All other forms are like the third conjugation.
  (Cf. capis, regis; capit, regit; etc.)

  2. Like /capio\, inflect

  facio, facere, _make, do_
  fugio, fugere, _flee_
  iacio, iacere, _hurl_
  rapio, rapere, _seize_

_161._ The Imperative Mood. The imperative mood expresses a command;
as, _come!_ _send!_ The present tense of the imperative is used only in
the second person, singular and plural. _The singular in the active
voice is regularly the same in form as the present stem. The plural is
formed by adding -te to the singular._

  CONJUGATION      SINGULAR             PLURAL
    I.             ama:, _love thou_     ama:'te, _love ye_
   II.             mone:, _advise thou_  mone:'te, _advise ye_
  III. (_a_)       rege, _rule thou_    re'gite, _rule ye_
       (_b_)       cape, _take thou_    ca'pite, _take ye_
   IV.             audi:, _hear thou_    audi:'te, _hear ye_
  sum (irregular)  es, _be thou_        este, _be ye_

  1. In the third conjugation the final -e- of the stem becomes -i- in
  the plural.

  2. The verbs /di:co:\, _say_; /du:co:\, _lead_; and /facio:\, _make_,
  have the irregular forms /di:c\, /du:c\, and /fac\ in the singular.

  3. Give the present active imperative, singular and plural, of
  /venio\, /duco\, /voco\, /doceo\, /laudo\, /dico\, /sedeo\, /ago\,
  /facio\, /munio\, /mitto\, /rapio\.

_162._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Fugient, faciunt, iaciebat. 2. Dele, nuntiate, fugiunt. 3. Venite,
dic, facietis. 4. Ducite, iaciam, fugiebant. 5. Fac, iaciebamus,
fugimus, rapite. 6. Sedete, reperi, docete. 7. Fugiemus, iacient,
rapies. 8. Reperient, rapiebatis, nocent. 9. Favete, resiste, parebitis.

10. Vola ad multas terras et da auxilium. 11. Ego tela mea capiam et
multas feras delebo. 12. Quis fabulae tuae credet? 13. Este boni, pueri,
et audite verba grata magistri.

II. 1. The goddess will seize her arms and will hurl her weapons.
2. With her weapons she will destroy many beasts. 3. She will give aid
to the weak.[1] 4. She will fly to many lands and the beasts will flee.
5. Romans, tell[2] the famous story to your children.

    [Footnote 1: Plural. An adjective used as a noun. (Cf.
    Sec. 99.II.3.)]

    [Footnote 2: Imperative. The imperative generally stands first, as
    in English.]

       *       *       *       *       *

  Third Review, Lessons XVIII-XXVI, Secs. 510-512

       *       *       *       *       *

LESSON XXVII

THE PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE OF _AMO:_ AND _MONEO:_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /a:la, -ae\, f., _wing_
  /deus, -i:\, m., _god_ (deity)[A]
  /monstrum, -i:\, n., _omen, prodigy; monster_
   o:ra:culum, -i:, n., _oracle_

  VERB
  /va:sto:, -a:re\, _lay waste, devastate_

  ADJECTIVES
  /commo:tus, -a, -um\, _moved, excited_
  /maximus, -a, -um\, _greatest_ (maximum)
  /saevus, -a, -um\, _fierce, savage_

  ADVERBS
  /ita\, _thus, in this way, as follows_
  /tum\, _then, at that time_

    [Footnote A: For the declension of /deus\, see Sec. 468]

_163._ The Voices. Thus far the verb forms have been in the _active
voice_; that is, they have represented the subject as _performing_ an
action; as,

  The lion ---> _killed_ ---> the hunter

A verb is said to be in the _passive voice_ when it represents its
subject as _receiving_ an action; as,

  The lion <--- _was killed_ <--- by the hunter

Note the direction of the arrows.

_164._ Passive Personal Endings. In the passive voice we use a
different set of personal endings. They are as follows:

      SINGULAR                PLURAL
   1. -r, _I_              1. -mur, _we_
   2. -ris, -re, _you_     2. -mini:, _you_
   3. -tur, _he, she, it_  3. -ntur, _they_

    _a._ Observe that the letter -r appears somewhere in all but one
    of the endings. This is sometimes called the _passive sign_.

_165._ PARADIGMS

  amo, ama:re                   mone:o, mone:re
  PRES. STEM ama:-              PRES. STEM mone:-

  PRESENT INDICATIVE                                            PERSONAL
                                                                 ENDINGS
  SINGULAR
  a'mor, _I am loved_          mo'neor, _I am advised_          -or[1]
  ama:'ris or ama:'re,         mone:'ris or mone:'re.           -ris
    _you are loved_              _you are advised_                or -re
  ama:'tur,  _he is loved_     mone:'tur,  _he is advised_      -tur

  PLURAL
  ama:'mur,  _we are loved_    mone:'mur,  _we are advised_     -mur
  ama:'mini:,  _you are loved_ mone:'mini:,  _you are advised_  -mini
  aman'tur,  _they are loved_  monen'tur,  _they are advised_   -ntur

    [Footnote 1: In the present the personal ending of the first person
    singular is -or.]

  IMPERFECT INDICATIVE (TENSE SIGN -ba:-)

  SINGULAR
  ama:'bar,                    mone:'bar,                       -r
    _I was being loved_          _I was being advised_
  ama:ba:'ris or ama:ba:'re,   mone:ba:'ris or mone:ba:'re      -ris
    _you were being loved_       _you were being advised_         or -re
  ama:ba:'tur,                 mone:ba:'tur,                    -tur
    _he was being loved_         _he was being advised_

  PLURAL
  ama:ba:'mur,                 mone:ba:'mur,                    -mur
    _we were being loved_        _we were being advised_
  ama:ba:'mini:,               mone:ba:'mini:,                  -mini:
    _you were being loved_       _you were being advised_
  ama:ban'tur,                 mone:ban'tur,                    -ntur
    _they were being loved_      _they were being advised_

  FUTURE (TENSE SIGN -bi-)

  SINGULAR
  ama:'bor,                    mone:'bor,                       -r
    _I shall be loved_           _I shall be advised_
  ama:'beris, _or_ ama:'bere   mone:'beris _or_ mone:'bere,     -ris
    _you will be loved_          _you will be advised_            or -re
  ama:'bitur,                  mone:'bitur,                     -tur
    _he will be loved_           _he will be advised_

  PLURAL
  ama:'bimur,                  mone:'bimur,                     -mur
    _we shall be loved_          _we shall be advised_
  ama:bi'mini:,                mone:bi'mini:,                   -mini:
    _you will be loved_          _you will be advised_
  ama:bun'tur,                 mone:bun'tur,                    -ntur
    _they will be loved_         _they will be advised_

  1. The tense sign and the personal endings are added as in the active.

  2. In the future the tense sign -bi- appears as -bo- in the first
  person, -be- in the second, singular number, and as -bu- in the
  third person plural.

  3. Inflect /laudo\, /neco\, /porto\, /moveo\, /deleo\, /iubeo\, in the
  present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

_166._ Intransitive verbs, such as /maturo\, _I hasten_; /habito\, _I
dwell_, do not have a passive voice with a personal subject.

_167._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Laudaris _or_ laudare, laudas, datur, dat. 2. Dabitur, dabit,
videmini, videtis. 3. Vocabat, vocabatur, delebitis, delebimini.
4. Parabatur, parabat, curas, curaris _or_ curare. 5. Portabantur,
portabant, videbimur, videbimus. 6. Iuberis _or_ iubere, iubes,
laudabaris _or_ laudabare, laudabas. 7. Moveberis or movebere, movebis,
dabantur, dabant. 8. Delentur, delent, parabamur, parabamus.

II. 1. We prepare, we are prepared, I shall be called, I shall call, you
were carrying, you were being carried. 2. I see, I am seen, it was being
announced, he was announcing, they will order, they will be ordered.
3. You will be killed, you will kill, you move, you are moved, we are
praising, we are being praised. 4. I am called, I call, you will have,
you are cared for. 5. They are seen, they see, we were teaching, we were
being taught, they will move, they will be moved.

  [Illustration: PERSEUS ANDROMEDAM SERVAT]

_168._ PER'SEUS AND ANDROM'EDA

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Perseus filius erat Iovis,[2] maximi[3] deorum. De eo multas fabulas
narrant poetae. Ei favent dei, ei magica arma et alas dant. Eis telis
armatus et alis fretus ad multas terras volabat et monstra saeva delebat
et miseris infirmisque auxilium dabat.

Aethiopia est terra Africae. Eam terram Cepheus[4] regebat. Ei[5]
Neptunus, maximus aquarum deus, erat iratus et mittit[6] monstrum saevum
ad Aethiopiam. Ibi monstrum non solum latis pulchrisque Aethiopiae agris
nocebat sed etiam domicilia agricolarum delebat, et multos viros,
feminas, liberosque necabat. Populus ex agris fugiebat et oppida muris
validis muniebat. Tum Cepheus magna tristitia commotus ad Iovis oraculum
properat et ita dicit: "Amici mei necantur; agri mei vastantur. Audi
verba mea, Iuppiter. Da miseris auxilium. Age monstrum saevum ex
patria."

    [Footnote 2: /Iovis\, the genitive of /Iuppiter\.]

    [Footnote 3: Used substantively, _the greatest_. So below, l. 4,
    /miseris\ and /infirmis\ are used substantively.]

    [Footnote 4: Pronounce in two syllables, _Ce'pheus_.]

    [Footnote 5: /Ei\, _at him_, dative with /iratus\.]

    [Footnote 6: The present is often used, as in English, in speaking
    of a past action, in order to make the story more vivid and
    exciting.]


LESSON XXVIII

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE
  OF _REGO:_ AND _AUDIO:_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  VERBS
  /respondeo:, -e:re\, _respond, reply_
  /servo:, -a:re\, _save, preserve_

  ADJECTIVE
  /ca:rus, -a, -um\, _dear_ (cherish)

  CONJUNCTION
  /autem\, _but, moreover, now_. Usually stands second, never first

  NOUN
  /vi:ta, -ae\, f., _life_ (vital)

_169._ Review the present, imperfect, and future indicative active of
/rego\ and /audio\, and learn the passive of the same tenses (Secs. 490,
491).

    _a._ Observe that the tense signs of the imperfect and future are
    the same as in the active voice, and that the passive personal
    endings (Sec. 164) are added instead of the active ones.

    _b._ Note the slight irregularity in the second person singular
    present of the third conjugation. There the final -e- of the stem
    is not changed to -i-, as it is in the active. We therefore have
    /re'geris\ or /re'gere\, _not_ /re'giris\, /re'gire\.

    _c._ Inflect /ago\, /dico\, /duco\, /munio\, /reperio\, in the
    present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

_170._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Agebat, agebatur, mittebat, mittebatur, ducebat. 2. Agunt,
aguntur, mittuntur, mittunt, muniunt. 3. Mittor, mittar, mittam, ducere,
ducere. 4. Dicemur, dicimus, dicemus, dicimur, muniebamini. 5. Ducitur,
ducimini, reperimur, reperiar, agitur. 6. Agebamus, agebamur, reperiris,
reperiemini. 7. Munimini, veniebam, ducebar, dicetur. 8. Mittimini,
mittitis, mitteris, mitteris, agebamini. 9. Dicitur, dicit, muniuntur,
reperient, audientur.

II. 1. I was being driven, I was driving, we were leading, we were being
led, he says, it is said. 2. I shall send, I shall be sent, you will
find, you will be found, they lead, they are led. 3. I am found, we are
led, they are driven, you were being led (_sing. and plur._). 4. We
shall drive, we shall be driven, he leads, he is being led, they will
come, they will be fortified. 5. They were ruling, they were being
ruled, you will send, you will be sent, you are sent, (_sing. and
plur._). 6. He was being led, he will come, you are said (_sing. and
plur._).

_171._ PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Tum oraculum ita respondet: "Mala est fortuna tua. Neptunus, magnus
aquarum deus, terrae Aethiopiae inimicus, eas poenas mittit. Sed para
irato deo sacrum idoneum et monstrum saevum ex patria tua agetur.
Andromeda filia tua est monstro grata. Da eam monstro. Serva caram
patriam et vitam populi tui." Andromeda autem erat puella pulchra. Eam
amabat Cepheus maxime.


LESSON XXIX

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _-IO:_ VERBS
PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE

  [Special Vocabulary]

  VERB
  /supero:, -a:re\, _conquer, overcome_ (insuperable)

  NOUNS
  /cu:ra, -ae\, f., _care, trouble_
  /locus, -i:\, m., _place, spot_ (location). /Locus\ is neuter in the
    plural and is declined /loca, -o:rum\, etc.
  /peri:culum, -i:\, n., _danger, peril_

  ADVERBS
  /semper\, _always_
  /tamen\, _yet, nevertheless_

  PREPOSITIONS
  /de:\, with abl., _down from; concerning_
  /per\, with acc., _through_

  CONJUNCTION
  /si\, _if_

_172._ Review the active voice of /capio\, present, imperfect, and
future, and learn the passive of the same tenses (Sec. 492).

    _a._ The present forms /capior\ and /capiuntur\ are like /audior,
    audiuntur\, and the rest of the tense is like /regor\.

    _b._ In like manner inflect the passive of /iacio\ and /rapio\.

_173._ The Infinitive. The infinitive mood gives the general meaning
of the verb without person or number; as, /ama:re\, _to love_.
Infinitive means _unlimited_. The forms of the other moods, being
limited by person and number, are called the _finite_, or limited,
verb forms.

_174._ The forms of the Present Infinitive, active and passive, are as
follows:

  CONJ.  PRES.     PRES. INFINITIVE    PRES. INFINITIVE
         STEM        ACTIVE              PASSIVE

    I.   ama:-     ama:'re,            ama:'ri:,
                     _to love_           _to be loved_
   II.   mone:-    mone:'re,           mone:'ri:,
                     _to advise_         _to be advised_
  III.   rege-     re'gere,            re'gi:,
                     _to rule_           _to be ruled_
         cape-     ca'pere             ca'pi:,
                     _to take_           _to be taken_
   IV.   audi:-    audi:'re,           audi:ri:,
                     _to hear_           _to be heard_

  1. Observe that to form the present active infinitive we add -re to
  the present stem.

    _a._ The present infinitive of /sum\ is /esse\. There is no passive.

  2. Observe that the present passive infinitive is formed from the
  active by changing final -e to -i:, except in the third
  conjugation, which changes final -ere to -i:.

  3. Give the active and passive present infinitives of /doceo\,
  /sedeo\, /volo\, /curo\, /mitto\, /duco\, /munio\, /reperio\, /iacio\,
  /rapio\.

_175._ The forms of the Present Imperative, active and passive, are as
follows:

         ACTIVE[1]              PASSIVE
  CONJ.  SINGULAR    PLURAL     SINGULAR            PLURAL
     I.  a'ma:       ama:'te    ama:'re,            ama:'mini:,
                                _be thou loved_     _be ye loved_
    II.  mo'ne:      mone:'te   mone:'re,           mone:'mini:,
                                _be thou advised_   _be ye advised_
   III.  re'ge       re'gite    re'gere,            regi'mini:,
                                _be thou ruled _    _be ye ruled_
         ca'pe       ca'pite    ca'pere,            capi'mini:,
                                _be thou taken_     _be ye taken_
    IV.  au'di:      audi:'te   audi:'re,           audi:'mini:,
                                _be thou heard_     _be ye heard_

  1. Observe that the second person singular of the present passive
  imperative is like the present active infinitive, and that both
  singular and plural are like the second person singular[2] and plural,
  respectively, of the present passive indicative.

  2. Give the present imperative, both active and passive, of the verbs
  in Sec. 174.3.

    [Footnote 1: For the sake of comparison the active is repeated from
    Sec. 161.]

    [Footnote 2: That is, using the personal ending -re. A form like
    /ama:re\ may be either _indicative_, _infinitive_, or _imperative_.]

_176._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1. Tum Perseus alis ad terras multas volabit. 2. Monstrum saevum per
aquas properat et mox agros nostros vastabit. 3. Si autem Cepheus ad
oraculum properabit, oraculum ita respondebit. 4. Quis telis Persei
superabitur? Multa monstra telis eius superabuntur. 5. Cum curis magnis
et lacrimis multis agricolae ex domiciliis caris aguntur. 6. Multa loca
vastabantur et multa oppida delebantur. 7. Monstrum est validum, tamen
superabitur. 8. Credesne semper verbis oraculi? Ego iis non semper
credam. 9. Parebitne Cepheus oraculo? Verba oraculi ei persuadebunt.
10. Si non fugiemus, oppidum capietur et oppidani necabuntur. 11. Vocate
pueros et narrate fabulam claram de monstro saevo.

II. 1. Fly thou, to be cared for, be ye sent, lead thou. 2. To lead, to
be led, be ye seized, fortify thou. 3. To be hurled, to fly, send thou,
to be found. 4. To be sent, be ye led, to hurl, to be taken. 5. Find
thou, hear ye, be ye ruled, to be fortified.


LESSON XXX

SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS : THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _FROM_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  VERBS
  /absum, abesse\, irreg., _be away, be absent, be distant_, with
    separative abl.
  /adpropinquo:, -a:re\, _draw near, approach_ (propinquity), with
    dative[A]
  /contineo:, -e:re\, _hold together, hem in, keep_ (contain)
  /disce:do:, -ere\, _depart, go away, leave_, with separative abl.
  /egeo:, -e:re\, _lack, need, be without_, with separative abl.
  /interficio:, -ere\, _kill_
  /prohibeo:, -e:re\, _restrain, keep from_ (prohibit)
  /vulnero:, -a:re\, _wound_ (vulnerable)

  NOUNS
  /pro:vincia, -ae\, f., _province_
  /vi:num, -i:\, n., _wine_

  ADJECTIVE
  /de:fessus, -a, -um\, _weary, worn out_

  ADVERB
  /longe:\, _far, by far, far away_

    [Footnote A: This verb governs the dative because the idea of
    _nearness to_ is stronger than that of _motion to_. If the latter
    idea were the stronger, the word would be used with /ad\ and the
    accusative.]

_177._ You should learn to give rapidly synopses of the verbs you have
had, as follows:[1]

            CONJUGATION I       CONJUGATION II
                       INDICATIVE
            ACTIVE   PASSIVE    ACTIVE    PASSIVE
  _Pres._   a'mo:     a'mor      mo'neo:    mo'neor
  _Imperf._ ama:'bam  ama:'bar    mone:'bam  mone:'bar
  _Fut._    ama:'bo   ama:'bor    mone:'bo   mone:'bor

    [Footnote 1: Synopses should be given not only in the first person,
    but in other persons as well, particularly in the third singular and
    plural.]

            CONJUGATION I          CONJUGATION II
                          IMPERATIVE
            ACTIVE    PASSIVE     ACTIVE     PASSIVE
  _Pres._   a'ma:      ama:'re      mo'ne:      mone:'re

                         INFINITIVE
  _Pres._   ama:'re    ama:'ri:      mone:'re    mone:'ri:

            CONJUGATION III        CONJUGATION III (-io: verbs)
                         INDICATIVE
            ACTIVE    PASSIVE     ACTIVE     PASSIVE
  _Pres._   re'go:     re'gor      ca'pio:     ca'pior
  _Imperf._ rege:'bam  rege:'bar    capie:'bam  capie:'bar
  _Fut._    re'gam    re'gar      ca'piam    ca'piar

                         IMPERATIVE
  _Pres._   re'ge     re'gere     ca'pe       ca'pere

                         INFINITIVE
  _Pres._   re'gere   re'gi:       ca'pere     ca'pi:

            CONJUGATION IV
              INDICATIVE
            ACTIVE     PASSIVE
  _Pres._   au'dio:     au'dior
  _Imperf._ audie:'bam  audie:'bar
  _Fut._    au'diam    au'diar

              IMPERATIVE
  _Pres._   au'di:      audi:'re

              INFINITIVE
  _Pres._   audi:'re    audi:'ri:

  1. Give the synopsis of /rapio\, /munio\, /reperio\, /doceo\, /video\,
  /dico\, /ago\, /laudo\, /porto\, and vary the person and number.

_178._ We learned in Sec. 50 that one of the three relations covered by
the ablative case is expressed in English by the preposition _from._
This is sometimes called the _separative ablative_, and it has a number
of special uses. You have already grown familiar with the first
mentioned below.

_179._ RULE. Ablative of the Place From. _The place from which is
expressed by the ablative with the prepositions /a:\ or /ab\, /de:\,
/e:\ or /ex\._

  Agricolae ex agris veniunt, _the farmers come from the fields_

    _a._ /a:\ or /ab\ denotes _from near_ a place; /e:\ or /ex\, _out
    from_ it; and /de\, _down from_ it. This may be represented
    graphically as follows:

                    _________
                   |         |
      /a:\ or /ab\ |         | /e:\ or /ex\
    /______________|     ___________________\
    \              |  Place  |              /
                   |_________|
                        |
                        | /de\
                        |
                        V

_180._ RULE. Ablative of Separation. _Words expressing separation or
deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning._

    _a._ If the separation is _actual_ and _literal_ of one material
    thing from another, the preposition /a:\ or /ab\, /e:\ or /ex\, or
    /de\ is generally used. If no actual motion takes place of one thing
    from another, no preposition is necessary.

      (a) Perseus terram a monstris liberat
        _Perseus frees the land from monsters_
          (literal separation--actual motion is expressed)
      (b) Perseus terram tristitia liberat
        _Perseus frees the land from sorrow_
          (figurative separation--no actual motion is expressed)

_181._ RULE. Ablative of the Personal Agent. _The word expressing the
person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the
ablative with the preposition /a:\ or /ab\._

    _a._ In this construction the English translation of /a:\, /ab\ is
    _by_ rather than _from_. This ablative is regularly used with
    passive verbs to indicate the _person by whom_ the act was
    performed.

      Monstrum a Perseo necatur, _the monster is being slain by_
        (lit. _from_) _Perseus_

    _b._ Note that the active form of the above sentence would be
    /Perseus monstrum necat\, _Perseus is slaying the monster_. In the
    passive the _object_ of the active verb becomes the _subject_, and
    the _subject_ of the active verb becomes the _ablative of the
    personal agent_, with /a:\ or /ab\.

    _c._ Distinguish carefully between the ablative of means and the
    ablative of the personal agent. Both are often translated into
    English by the preposition _by_. (Cf. Sec. 100. _b._) _Means is a
    /thing\; the agent or actor is a /person\_. The ablative of means
    has no preposition. The ablative of the personal agent has /a:\ or
    /ab\. Compare

      Fera sagitta necatur, _the wild beast is killed by an arrow_
      Fera a Diana necatur, _the wild beast is killed by Diana_

    /Sagitta\, in the first sentence, is the ablative of means;
    /a Diana\, in the second, is the ablative of the personal agent.

_182._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1. Viri inopia cibi defessi ab eo loco discedent. 2. Gerinani castris
Romanis adpropinquabant, tamen legatus copias a proelio continebat.
3. Multa Gallorum oppida ab Romanis capientur. 4. Tum Romani totum
populum eorum oppidorum gladiis pilisque interficient. 5. Oppidani
Romanis resistent, sed defessi longo proelio fugient. 6. Multi ex
Gallia fugiebant et in Germanorum vicis habitabant. 7. Miseri nautae
vulnerantur ab inimicis[2] saevis et cibo egent. 8. Discedite et
date viris frumentum et copiam vini. 9. Copiae nostrae a proelio
continebantur ab Sexto legato. 10. Id oppidum ab provincia Romana longe
aberat.

II. 1. The weary sailors were approaching a place dear to the goddess
Diana. 2. They were without food and without wine. 3. Then Galba and
seven other men are sent to the ancient island by Sextus. 4. Already
they are not far away from the land, and they see armed men on a high
place. 5. They are kept from the land by the men with spears and arrows.
6. The men kept hurling their weapons down from the high place with
great eagerness.

    [Footnote 2: /inimicis\, here used as a noun. See vocabulary.]


LESSON XXXI

PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF _SUM_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
   aurum, -i:, n., _gold_ (oriole)
  /mora, -ae\, f., _delay_
  /na:vigium, na:vi'gi:\, n., _boat, ship_
  /ventus, -i:\, m., _wind_ (ventilate)

  VERB
  /na:vigo:, -a:re\, _sail_ (navigate)

  ADJECTIVES
   attentus, -a, -um, _attentive, careful_
  /dubius, -a, -um\, _doubtful_ (dubious)
   perfidus, -a, -um, _faithless, treacherous_ (perfidy)

  ADVERB
  /antea:\, _before, previously_

  PREPOSITION
  /sine\, with abl., _without_

_183._ Principal Parts. There are certain parts of the verb that are
of so much consequence in tense formation that we call them the
_principal parts._

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the present, the past, and the
past participle; as _go, went, gone_; _see, saw, seen_, etc.

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the _first person singular of
the present indicative_, the _present infinitive_, the _first person
singular of the perfect indicative_, and _the perfect passive
participle._

_184._ Conjugation Stems. From the principal parts we get three
conjugation stems, from which are formed the entire conjugation. We
have already learned about the /present stem\, which is found from the
present infinitive (cf. Sec. 126.a). The other two stems are the
/perfect stem\ and the /participial stem\.

_185._ The Perfect Stem. The perfect stem of the verb is formed in
various ways, but may always be _found by dropping -i: from the first
person singular of the perfect_, the third of the principal parts. From
the perfect stem are formed the following tenses:

  THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE
  THE PLUPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE (ENGLISH PAST PERFECT)
  THE FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE

All these tenses express completed action in present, past, or future
time respectively.

_186._ The Endings of the Perfect. The perfect active indicative is
inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem.
These endings are different from those found in any other tense, and are
as follows:

     SINGULAR                PLURAL
  1. -i:, _I_             1. -imus, _we_
  2. -isti:, _you_        2. -istis, _you_
  3. -it, _he, she, it_   3. -e:runt or -e:re, _they_

_187._ Inflection of /sum\ in the perfect, pluperfect, and future
perfect indicative:

               PRES. INDIC.  PRES. INFIN.  PERF. INDIC.
  PRIN. PARTS  sum           esse          fui:

               PERFECT STEM fu-

    PERFECT
  SINGULAR                       PLURAL
  fu'i:, _I have been, I was_    fu'imus, _we have been, we were_
  fuis'ti:,                      fuis'tis, _you have been, you were_
    _you have been, you were_
  fu'it, _he has been, he was_   fue:'runt _or_ fue:'re,
                                   _they have been, they were_

    PLUPERFECT (TENSE SIGN -era:-)
  fu'eram, _I had been_          fuera:'mus, _we had been_
  fu'era:s, _you had been_       fuera:'tis, _you had been_
  fu'erat, _he had been_         fu'erant, _they had been_

    FUTURE PERFECT (TENSE SIGN -eri-)
  fu'ero:, _I shall have been_   fue'rimus, _we shall have been_
  fu'eris, _you will have been_  fue'ritis, _you will have been_
  fu'erit, _he will have been_   fu'erint, _they will have been_

  1. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect.

  2. Observe that the pluperfect may be formed by adding /eram\, the
  imperfect of /sum\, to the perfect stem. The tense sign is -era:-.

  3. Observe that the future perfect may be formed by adding /ero\, the
  future of /sum\, to the perfect stem. But the third person plural ends
  in -erint, not in -erunt. The tense sign is -eri-.

  4. All active perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects are formed on
  the perfect stem and inflected in the same way.

_188._ DIALOGUE

THE BOYS TITUS, MARCUS, AND QUINTUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

  M. Ubi fuistis, Tite et Quinte?
  T. Ego in meo ludo fui et Quintus in suo ludo fuit. Boni pueri fuimus.
    Fuitne Sextus in vico hodie?
  M. Fuit. Nuper per agros proximos fluvio properabat. Ibi is et
    Cornelius habent navigium.
  T. _Navigium_ dicis? Alii[1] narra eam fabulam!
  M. Vero (_Yes, truly_), pulchrum et novum navigium!
  Q. Cuius pecunia[2] Sextus et Cornelius id navigium parant? Quis iis
    pecuniam dat?
  M. Amici Corneli multum habent aurum et puer pecunia non eget.
  T. Quo pueri navigabunt? Navigabuntne longe a terra?
  M. Dubia sunt consilia eorum. Sed hodie, credo, si ventus erit
    idoneus, ad maximam insulam navigabunt. Iam antea ibi fuerunt.
    Tum autem ventus erat perfidus et pueri magno in periculo erant.
  Q. Aqua vento commota est inimica nautis semper, et saepe perfidus
    ventus navigia rapit, agit, deletque. Ii pueri, si non fuerint
    maxime attenti, irata aqua et valido vento superabuntur et ita
    interficientur.

    [Footnote 1: Dative case. (Cf. Sec. 109.)]

    [Footnote 2: Ablative of means.]

_189._ EXERCISE

1. Where had the boys been before? They had been in school. 2. Where had
Sextus been? He had been in a field next to the river. 3. Who has been
with Sextus to-day? Cornelius has been with him. 4. Who says so? Marcus.
5. If the wind has been suitable, the boys have been in the boat.
6. Soon we shall sail with the boys. 7. There[3] will be no danger,
if we are (shall have been) careful.[4]

    [Footnote 3: The expletive _there_ is not expressed, but the verb
    will precede the subject, as in English.]

    [Footnote 4: This predicate adjective must be nominative plural to
    agree with _we_.]


LESSON XXXII

THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  /animus, -i:\, m., _mind, heart; spirit, feeling_ (animate)
  /bracchium, bracchi:\, n., _forearm, arm_
  /porta, -ae\, f., _gate_ (portal)

  ADJECTIVES
  /adversus, -a, -um\, _opposite; adverse, contrary_
  /ple:nus, -a, -um\, _full_ (plenty)

  PREPOSITION
  /pro:\, with abl., _before; in behalf of; instead of_

  ADVERB
  /diu:\, _for a long time, long_

_190._ Meanings of the Perfect. The perfect tense has two distinct
meanings. The first of these is equivalent to the English present
perfect, or perfect with _have_, and denotes that the action of the verb
is complete at the time of speaking; as, _I have finished my work_. As
this denotes completed action at a definite time, it is called the
/perfect definite\.

The perfect is also used to denote an action that happened _sometime in
the past_; as, _I finished my work._ As no definite time is specified,
this is called the /perfect indefinite\. It corresponds to the ordinary
use of the English past tense.

    _a._ Note carefully the difference between the following tenses:

      _I {was finishing } my work_ (imperfect, Sec. 134)
         {used to finish}
      _I finished my work_         (perfect indefinite)
      _I have finished my work_    (perfect definite)

When telling a story the Latin uses the _perfect indefinite_ to mark the
different _forward steps_ of the narrative, and the _imperfect_ to
_describe situations and circumstances_ that attend these steps. If the
following sentences were Latin, what tenses would be used?

  "Last week I went to Boston. I was trying to find an old friend of
  mine, but he was out of the city. Yesterday I returned home."

_191._ Inflection of the Perfect. We learned in Sec. 186 that any
perfect is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the
perfect stem. The inflection in the four regular conjugations is then
as follows:

  CONJ. I    ama:vi:   _I have loved_, _I loved_ or _did love_
  CONJ. II   monui:    _I have advised_, _I advised_ or _did advise_
  CONJ. III  re:xi:    _I have ruled_, _I ruled_ or _did rule_
             ce:pi:    _I have taken_, _I took_ or _did take_
  CONJ. IV   audi:vi:  _I have heard_, _I heard_ or _did hear_

     PERFECT STEMS
     ama:v-        monu-        re:x-        ce:p-        audi:v-

     SINGULAR
  1. ama:'vi:      mo'nui:      re:'xi:      ce:'pi:      audi:'vi:
  2. ama:vis'ti:   monuis'ti:   re:xis'ti:   ce:pis'ti:   audi:vis'ti:
  3. ama:'vit      mo'nuit      re:'xit      ce:'pit      audi:'vit

     PLURAL
  1. ama:'vimus    monu'imus    re:'ximus    ce:'pimus    audi:'vimus
  2. ama:vis'tis   monuis'tis   re:xis'tis   ce:pis'tis   audi:vis'tis
  3. ama:ve:'runt  monue:'runt  re:xe:'runt  ce:pe:'runt  audi:ve:'runt
       _or_          _or_         _or_         _or_         _or_
     ama:ve:'re    monue:'re    re:xe:'re    ce:pe:'re    audi:ve:'re

  1. The first person of the perfect is always given as the third of the
  principal parts. From this we get the perfect stem. _This shows the
  absolute necessity of learning the principal parts thoroughly._

  2. Nearly all perfects of the first conjugation are formed by adding
  -vi: to the present stem. Like /amavi\ inflect /paravi\, /vocavi\,
  /curavi\, /laudavi\.

  3. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. Drill on it.

_192._ Learn the principal parts and inflect the perfects:

  PRES. INDIC.  PRES. INFIN.  PERF. INDIC.
  do:           dare          dedi:           _give_
  de:leo:       de:le:re      de:le:vi:       _destroy_
  habeo:        habe:re       habui:          _have_
  moveo:        move:re       mo:vi:          _move_
  pa:reo:       pa:re:re      pa:rui:         _obey_
  prohibeo:     prohibe:re    prohi:bui:      _restrain, keep from_
  video:        vide:re       vi:di:          _see_
  di:co:        di:cere       di:xi:          _say_
  disce:do:     disce:dere    discessi:       _depart_
  du:co:        du:cere       du:xi:          _lead_
  facio:        facere        fe:ci:          _make, do_
  mitto:        mittere       mi:si:          _send_
  mu:nio:       mu:ni:re      mu:ni:vi:       _fortify_
  venio:        veni:re       ve:ni:          _come_

_193._ PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

Cepheus, adversa fortuna maxime commotus, discessit et multis cum
lacrimis populo Aethiopiae verba oraculi narravit. Fata Andromedae,
puellae pulchrae, a toto populo deplorabantur, tamen nullum erat
auxilium. Deinde Cepheus cum pleno tristitiae animo caram suam filiam
ex oppidi porta ad aquam duxit et bracchia eius ad saxa dura revinxit.
Tum amici puellae miserae longe discesserunt et diu monstrum saevum
exspectaverunt.

Tum forte Perseus, alis fretus, super Aethiopiam volabat. Vidit populum,
Andromedam, lacrimas, et, magnopere attonitus, ad terram descendit. Tum
Cepheus ei totas curas narravit et ita dixit: "Parebo verbis oraculi, et
pro patria filiam meam dabo; sed si id monstrum interficies et
Andromedam servabis, tibi (_to you_) eam dabo."


LESSON XXXIII

PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE
PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE

_194._            CONJ. I  CONJ. II  CONJ. III       CONJ. IV
                  amo:      moneo:     rego:  capio:     audio:
  PERFECT STEMS   ama:v-    monu-     re:x-  ce:p-      audi:v-


  PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
  TENSE SIGN -era:-

   SINGULAR
   I had loved    I had advised  I had ruled  I had taken   I had heard

1. ama:'veram     monu'eram     re:'xeram     ce:'peram     audi:'veram
2. ama:'vera:s    monu'era:s    re:'xera:s    ce:'pera:s    audi:'vera:s
3. ama:'verat     monu'erat     re:'xerat     ce:'perat     audi:'verat

   PLURAL
1. ama:vera:'mus  monuera:'mus  re:xera:'mus  ce:pera:'mus  --era:'mus
2. ama:vera:'tis  monuera:'tis  re:xera:'tis  ce:pera:'tis  --era:'tis
3. ama'verant     monu'erant    re:'xerant    ce:'perant    audi:'verant


  FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
  TENSE SIGN -eri-

     SINGULAR
   I shall have  I shall have  I shall have  I shall have  I shall have
      loved         advised       ruled         taken         heard

  1. ama:'vero:    monu'ero:    re:'xero:    ce:'pero:    audi:'vero:
  2. ama:'veris    monu'eris    re:'xeris    ce:'peris    audi:'veris
  3. ama:'verit    monu'erit    re:'xerit    ce:'perit    audi:'verit

     PLURAL
  1. ama:ve'rimus  monue'rimus  re:xe'rimus  ce:pe'rimus  audi:ve'rimus
  2. ama:ve'ritis  monue'ritis  re:xe'ritis  ce:pe'ritis  audi:ve'ritis
  3. ama:'verint   monu'erint   re:'xerint   ce:'perint   audi:'verint

  1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for
  formation given in Sec. 187.2-4 hold good here.

  2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative
  active of /do\, /porto\, /deleo\, /moveo\, /habeo\, /dico\, /discedo\,
  /facio\, /venio\, /munio\.

_195._ The Perfect Active Infinitive. The perfect active infinitive is
formed by adding -isse to the perfect stem.

  CONJ       PERFECT STEM  PERFECT INFINITIVE
    I.       ama:v-        ama:vis'se, _to have loved_
   II.       monu-         monuis'se, _to have advised_
  III. (_a_) re:x-         re:xis'se, _to have ruled_
       (_b_) ce:p-         ce:pis'se, _to have taken_
   IV.       audi:v\       audi:vis'se, _to have heard_
  sum        fu-           fuis'se, _to have been_

  1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of /do\, /porto\,
  /deleo\, /moveo\, /habeo\, /dico\, /discedo\, /facio\, /venio\,
  /munio\.

_196._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Habuisti, moverunt, miserant. 2. Vidit, dixeris, duxisse.
3. Misistis, paruerunt, discesseramus. 4. Munivit, dederam, misero.
5. Habuerimus, delevi, paruit, fuisse. 6. Dederas, muniveritis,
veneratis, misisse. 7. Veneras, fecisse, dederatis, portaveris.

8. Quem verba oraculi moverant? Populum verba oraculi moverant.
9. Cui Cepheus verba oraculi narraverit? Perseo Cepheus verba oraculi
narraverit. 10. Amici ab Andromeda discesserint. 11. Monstrum saevum
domicilia multa deleverat. 12. Ubi monstrum vidistis? Id in aqua
vidimus. 13. Quid monstrum faciet? Monstrum Andromedam interficiet.

II. 1. They have obeyed, we have destroyed, I shall have had. 2. We
shall have sent, I had come, they have fortified. 3. I had departed, he
has obeyed, you have sent (_sing. and plur._). 4. To have destroyed, to
have seen, he will have given, they have carried. 5. He had destroyed,
he has moved, you have had (_sing. and plur._). 6. I have given, you had
moved (_sing. and plur._), we had said. 7. You will have made (_sing.
and plur._), they will have led, to have given.

8. Who had seen the monster? Andromeda had seen it. 9. Why had the men
departed from[1] the towns? They had departed because the monster had
come. 10. Did Cepheus obey[2] the oracle[3]? He did.

    [Footnote 1: /ex\. What would /ab\ mean?]

    [Footnote 2: _Did ... obey_, perfect tense.]

    [Footnote 3: What case?]


LESSON XXXIV

REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE

  [Special Vocabulary]

  ADVERBS
  /celeriter\, _quickly_ (celerity)
  /de:nique\, _finally_
  /graviter\, _heavily, severely_ (gravity)
  /subito:\, _suddenly_

  VERB
  /reporto:, -a:re, -a:vi:\, _bring back, restore; win, gain_ (report)

_197._ A review of the tenses of the indicative active shows the
following formation:

             { PRESENT        = First of the principal parts
  TENSES     { IMPERFECT      = Present stem + -ba-m
  OF THE     { FUTURE         = Present stem + -bo, Conj. I and II
  INDICATIVE {                                 -a-m, Conj. III and IV
             { PERFECT        = Third of the principal parts
             { PLUPERFECT     = Perfect stem + -era-m
             { FUTURE PERFECT = Perfect stem + -ero

_198._ The synopsis of the active voice of /amo\, as far as we have
learned the conjugation, is as follows:

  PRINCIPAL PARTS amo:, ama:re, ama:vi:

  PRES. STEM ama:-

         { _Pres._      amo:
  INDIC. { _Imperf._    ama:bam
         { _Fut._       ama:bo:
  PRES. IMV.            ama:
  PRES. INFIN.          ama:re

  PERF. STEM ama:v-

         { _Perf._      ama:vi:
  INDIC. { _Pluperf._   ama:veram
         { _Fut. perf._ ama:vero:
  PERF. INFIN.          ama:visse

  1. Learn to write in the same form and to give rapidly the principal
  parts and synopsis of /paro\, /do\, /laudo\, /deleo\, /habeo\,
  /moveo\, /pareo\, /video\, /dico\, /discedo\, /duco\, /mitto\,
  /capio\, /munio\, /venio\.[1]

    [Footnote 1: Learn to give synopses rapidly, and not only in the
    first person singular but in any person of either number.]

_199._ Learn the following principal parts:[2]

    PRES. INDIC.   PRES. INFIN.  PERF. INDIC.

  IRREGULAR VERBS
    sum           esse           fui:           _be_
    ab'sum        abes'se        a:'fui:         _be away_
    do:            dare           dedi:          _give_

  CONJUGATION II
    contineo:      contine:re      continui:      _hold in, keep_
    doceo:         doce:re         docui:         _teach_
    egeo:          ege:re          egui:          _need_
    faveo:         fave:re         fa:vi:          _favor_
    iubeo:         iube:re         iussi:         _order_
    noceo:         noce:re         nocui:         _injure_
    persua:deo:     persua:de:re     persua:si:      _persuade_
    respondeo:     responde:re     respondi:      _reply_
    sedeo:         sede:re         se:di:          _sit_
    studeo:        stude:re        studui:        _be eager_

  CONJUGATION III
    ago:           agere          e:gi:           _drive_
    cre:do:         cre:dere        cre:didi:       _believe_
    fugio:         fugere         fu:gi:          _flee_
    iacio:         iacere         ie:ci:          _hurl_
    interficio:    interficere    interfe:ci:     _kill_
    rapio:         rapere         rapui:         _seize_
    resis'to:      resis'tere     re'stiti:      _resist_

  CONJUGATION IV
    repe'rio:      reperi:'re      rep'peri:      _find_

    [Footnote 2: These are all verbs that you have had before, and the
    perfect is the only new form to be learned.]

_200._ PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Concluded_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Read the whole story.

Perseus semper proelio studebat[3] et respondit,[3] "Verba tua sunt
maxime grata," et laetus arma sua magica paravit.[3] Subito monstrum
videtur; celeriter per aquam properat et Andromedae adpropinquat. Eius
amici longe absunt et misera puella est sola. Perseus autem sine mora
super aquam volavit.[3] Subito descendit[3] et duro gladio saevum
monstrum graviter vulneravit.[3] Diu pugnatur,[4] diu proelium est
dubium. Denique autem Perseus monstrum interfecit[3] et victoriam
reportavit.[3] Tum ad saxum venit[3] et Andromedam liberavit[3] et eam
ad Cepheum duxit.[3] Is, nuper miser, nunc laetus, ita dixit[3]: "Tuo
auxilio, mi amice, cara filia mea est libera; tua est Andromeda." Diu
Perseus cum Andromeda ibi habitabat[3] et magnopere a toto populo
amabatur.[3]

    [Footnote 3: See if you can explain the use of the perfects and
    imperfects in this passage.]

    [Footnote 4: The verb pugnatur means, literally, _it is fought_;
    translate freely, _the battle is fought_, or _the contest rages_.
    The verb pugno in Latin is intransitive, and so does not have a
    personal subject in the passive. A verb with an indeterminate
    subject, designated in English by _it_, is called impersonal.]


LESSON XXXV

THE PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE
THE PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE

_201._ The fourth and last of the principal parts (Sec. 183) is the
/perfect passive participle\. _From it we get the participial stem on
which are formed the future active infinitive and all the passive
perfects._

  1. Learn the following principal parts, which are for the first time
  given in full:

  CONJ.  PRES. INDIC.   PRES. INFIN.   PERF. INDIC.    PERF. PASS. PART.
     I.  amo:           ama:'-re       ama:'v-i:       ama:'t-us
  This is the model for all regular verbs of the first conjugation.
    II.  mo'neo:        mone:'-re      mo'nu-i:        mo'nit-us
   III.  rego:          re'ge-re       re:x-i:         re:ct-us
         ca'pio:        ca'pe-re       ce:p-i:         capt-us
    IV.  au'dio:        audi:'-re      audi:'v-i:      audi:'t-us

  2. The base of the participial stem is found by dropping -us from
  the perfect passive participle.

_202._ In English the perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses
of the indicative passive are made up of forms of the auxiliary verb
_to be_ and the past participle; as, _I have been loved_, _I had been
loved_, _I shall have been loved._

Very similarly, in Latin, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect
passive tenses use respectively the present, imperfect, and future of
/sum\ as an auxiliary verb with the perfect passive participle, as

  Perfect passive, /ama'tus sum\, _I have been_ or _was loved_
  Pluperfect passive, /ama'tus eram\, _I had been loved_
  Future perfect passive, /ama'tus ero\, _I shall have been loved_

  1. In the same way give the synopsis of the corresponding tenses of
  /moneo\, /rego\, /capio\, and /audio\, and give the English meanings.

_203._ Nature of the Participle. A participle is partly verb and
partly adjective. As a verb it possesses tense and voice. As an
adjective it is declined and agrees with the word it modifies in gender,
number, and case.

_204._ The perfect passive participle is declined like /bonus, bona,
bonum\, and in the compound tenses (Sec. 202) it agrees as a predicate
adjective with the subject of the verb.

  EXAMPLES IN SINGULAR
    Vir laudatus est, _the man was praised_, or _has been praised_
    Puella laudata est, _the girl was praised_, or _has been praised_
    Consilium laudatum est, _the plan was praised_, or
                                _has been praised_

  EXAMPLES IN PLURAL
    Viri laudati sunt, _the men were praised_, or _have been praised_
    Puellae laudatae sunt, _the girls were praised_, or
                               _have been praised_
    Consilia laudata sunt, _the plans were praised_, or
                               _have been praised_

  1. Inflect the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative
  passive of /amo\, /moneo\, /rego\, /capio\, and /audio\ (Secs.
  488-492).

_205._ The perfect passive infinitive is formed by adding /esse\,
the present infinitive of /sum\, to the perfect passive participle; as,
ama't-us (-a, -um) /esse\, _to have been loved_; mo'nit-us (-a,
-um) /esse\, _to have been advised_.

  1. Form the perfect passive infinitive of /rego\, /capio\, /audio\,
  and give the English meanings.

_206._ The future active infinitive is formed by adding /esse\, the
present infinitive of /sum\, to the future active participle. This
participle is made by adding /-urus, -a, -um\ to the base of the
participial stem. Thus the future active infinitive of /amo\ is
amat-u'rus (-a, -um) /esse\, _to be about to love_.

    _a._ Note that in forming the three tenses of the active infinitive
    we use all three conjugation stems:

      Present, amare (present stem), _to love_
      Perfect, amavisse (perfect stem), _to have loved_
      Future, amaturus esse (participial stem), _to be about to love_

  1. Give the three tenses of the active infinitive of /laudo\, /moneo\,
  /rego\, /capio\, /audio\, with the English meanings.

_207._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Fabula Andromedae narrata est. 2. Multae fabulae a magistro
narratae sunt. 3. Ager ab agricola valido aratus erat. 4. Agri ab
agricolis validis arati erant. 5. Aurum a servo perfido ad domicilium
suum portatum erit. 6. Nostra arma a legato laudata sunt. Quis vestra
arma laudavit? 7. Ab ancilla tua ad cenam vocatae sumus. 8. Andromeda
monstro non data est, quia monstrum a Perseo necatum erat.

II. 1. The provinces were laid waste, the field had been laid waste, the
towns will have been laid waste. 2. The oracles were heard, the oracle
was heard, the oracles had been heard. 3. The oracle will have been
heard, the province had been captured, the boats have been captured.
4. The fields were laid waste, the man was advised, the girls will have
been advised. 5. The towns had been ruled, we shall have been captured,
you will have been heard.


LESSON XXXVI

REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS : PREPOSITIONS _YES_-OR-_NO_ QUESTIONS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /dexter, dextra, dextrum\, _right_ (dextrous)
  /sinister, sinistra, sinistrum\, _left_
  /fru:stra:\, adv., _in vain_ (frustrate)

  /gero:, gerere, gessi:, gestus\, _bear, carry on; wear_;
    /bellum gerere\, _to wage war_
  /occupo:, occupa:re, occupa:vi:, occupa:tus\, _seize, take possession
    of_ (occupy)
  /postulo:, postula:re, postula:vi:, postula:tus\, _demand_
    (ex-postulate)
  /recu:so:, recu:sa:re, recu:sa:vi:, recu:sa:tus\, _refuse_
  /sto:, sta:re, steti:, status\, _stand_
  /tempto:, tempta:re, tempta:vi:, tempta:tus\, _try, tempt, test;
    attempt_
  /teneo:, tene:re, tenui:, ----\, _keep, hold_ (tenacious)

  The word /ubi\, which we have used so much in the sense of _where_ in
  asking a question, has two other uses equally important:

  1. /ubi\ = _when_, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as,
    /Ubi monstrum audiverunt, fugerunt\, _when they heard the monster,
    they fled_

  2. /ubi\ = _where_, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as,
    /Video oppidum ubi Galba habitat\, _I see the town where Galba
    lives_

  /ubi\ is called a _relative conjunction_ because it is equivalent to
  a relative pronoun. _When_ in the first sentence is equivalent to
  _at the time /at which\;_ and in the second, _where_ is equivalent
  to _the place /in which\._

_208._ The following list shows the principal parts of all the verbs you
have had excepting those used in the paradigms. The parts you have had
before are given for review, and the perfect participle is the only new
form for you to learn. Sometimes one or more of the principal parts are
lacking, which means that the verb has no forms based on that stem. A
few verbs lack the perfect passive participle but have the future active
participle in -u:rus, which appears in the principal parts instead.

  IRREGULAR VERBS

  sum     esse     fui:    futu:rus    _be_
  absum   abesse   a:fui:   a:futu:rus   _be away_
  do:[1]   dare     dedi:   datus      _give_

    [Footnote 1: /do:\ is best classed with the irregular verbs because
    of the short /a\ in the present and participial stems.]

  CONJUGATION I

  porto:   porta:re   porta:vi:   porta:tus   _carry_

  So for all verbs of this conjugation thus far used.

  CONJUGATION II

  contineo:   contine:re   continui:  contentus   _hold in, keep_
  de:leo:      de:le:re      de:le:vi:    de:le:tus     _destroy_
  doceo:      doce:re      docui:     doctus      _teach_
  egeo:       ege:re       egui:       ----         _lack_
  faveo:      fave:re      fa:vi:      fautu:rus    _favor_
  iubeo:      iube:re      iussi:     iussus      _order_
  moveo:      move:re      mo:vi:      mo:tus       _move_
  noceo:      noce:re      nocui:     nocitu:rus   _injure_
  pa:reo:      pa:re:re      pa:rui:      ----         _obey_
  persua:deo:  persua:de:re  persua:si:  persua:sus   _persuade (from)_
  prohibeo:   prohibe:re   prohibui:  prohibitus  _restrain, keep_
  respondeo:  responde:re  respondi:  respo:nsus   _reply_
  sedeo:      sede:re      se:di:      -sessus     _sit_
  studeo:     stude:re     studui:      ----        _be eager_
  video:      vide:re      vi:di:      vi:sus       _see_

  CONJUGATION III

  ago:         agere        e:gi:        a:ctus        _drive_
  cre:do:       cre:dere      cre:didi:    cre:ditus     _believe_
  di:co:        di:cere       di:xi:       dictus       _say_
  disce:do:     disce:dere    discessi:   discessus    _depart_
  du:co:        du:cere       du:xi:       ductus       _lead_
  facio:[2]    facere       fe:ci:       factus       _make_
  fugio:       fugere       fu:gi:       fugitu:rus    _flee_
  iacio:       iacere       ie:ci:       iactus       _hurl_
  interficio:  interficere  interfe:ci:  interfectus  _kill_
  mitto:       mittere      mi:si:       missus       _send_
  rapio:       rapere       rapui:      raptus       _seize_
  resisto:     resistere    restiti:     ----          _resist_

  CONJUGATION IV

  mu:nio:     mu:ni:re     mu:ni:vi:     mu:ni:tus    _fortify_
  reperio:   reperi:re   rep'peri:   repertus   _find_
  venio:     veni:re     ve:ni:       ventus     _come_

    [Footnote 2: /facio\ has an irregular passive which will be
    presented later.]

_209._ Prepositions.
  1. We learned in Secs. 52, 53 that only the _accusative_ and the
  _ablative_ are used with prepositions, and that prepositions
  expressing ablative relations govern the ablative case. Those we have
  had are here summarized. The table following should be learned.

    a: or ab,  _from, by_
    cum,       _with_
    de:,       _down from, concerning_
    e: or ex,  _out from, out of_
    pro:,      _before, in front of; for, in behalf of_
    sine,      _without_

  2. Prepositions not expressing ablative relations must govern the
  _accusative_ (Sec. 52). Of these we have had the following:

    ad,    _to_;
    apud,  _among_;
    per,   _through_

  There are many others which you will meet as we proceed.

  3. The preposition /in\ when meaning _in_ or _on_ governs the
  _ablative_; when meaning _to, into, against_ (relations foreign to the
  ablative) /in\ governs the _accusative_.

_210._ _Yes_-or-_No_ Questions. Questions not introduced by some
interrogative word like _who, why, when_, etc., but expecting the answer
_yes_ or _no_, may take one of three forms:

  1. _Is he coming?_ (Asking for information. Implying nothing as to
       the answer expected.)
  2. _Is he not coming?_ (Expecting the answer _yes_.)
  3. _He isn't coming, is he?_ (Expecting the answer _no_.)

These three forms are rendered in Latin as follows:

  1. Venitne? _is he coming?_
  2. Nonne venit? _is he not coming?_
  3. Num venit? _he isn't coming, is he?_

    _a._ -ne, the question sign, is usually added to the verb, which
    then stands first.

    _b._ We learned in Sec. 56.b that _yes_-or-_no_ questions are
    usually answered by repeating the verb, with or without a negative.
    Instead of this, /ita\, /vero\, /certe\, etc. (_so, truly,
    certainly_, etc.) may be used for _yes_, and /non\, /minime\, etc.
    for _no_ if the denial is emphatic, as, _by no means_, _not at all_.

_211._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

I. 1. Nonne habebat Cornelia ornamenta auri? Habebat. 2. Num Sextus
legatus scutum in dextro bracchio gerebat? Non in dextro, sed sinistro
in bracchio Sextus scutum gerebat. 3. Frustra bella multa ab Gallis
gesta erant. 4. Ubi oppidum a perfido Sexto occupatum est, oppidani
miseri gladio interfecti sunt. 5. Id oppidum erat plenum frumenti.
6. Nonne Sextus ab oppidanis frumentum postulavit? Vero, sed ii
recusaverunt frumentum dare. 7. Cur oppidum ab Sexto deletum est? Quia
frumentum recusatum est. 8. Ea victoria non dubia erat. 9. Oppidani
erant defessi et armis egebant. 10. Num fugam temptaverunt? Minime.

II. 1. Where was Julia standing? She was standing where you had ordered.
2. Was Julia wearing any ornaments? She had many ornaments of gold.
3. Did she not attempt flight when she saw the danger? She did. 4. Who
captured her? Galba captured her without delay and held her by the left
arm. 5. She didn't have the lady's gold, did she? No, the gold had been
taken by a faithless maid and has been brought back.

       *       *       *       *       *

  Fourth Review, Lessons XXVII-XXXVI, Secs. 513-516

       *       *       *       *       *

LESSON XXXVII

CONJUGATION OF _POSSUM_ : THE INFINITIVE USED AS IN ENGLISH

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /neque\ or /nec\, conj., _neither_, _nor_, _and ... not_;
    /neque ... neque\, _neither ... nor_
  /castellum, -i:\, n., _redoubt, fort_ (castle)
  /coti:die:\, adv., _daily_
   cesso:, cessa:re, cessa:vi:, cessa:tus, _cease_, with the infin.

  /incipio:, incipere, ince:pi:, inceptus\, _begin_ (incipient),
    with the infin.
  /oppugno:, oppugna:re, oppugna:vi:, oppugna:tus\, _storm, assail_
  /peto:, petere, petivi\ or /petii:, peti:tus\, _aim at, assail, storm,
    attack; seek, ask_ (petition)
  /po:no:, po:nere, posui:, positus\, _place, put_ (position);
    /castra po:nere\, _to pitch camp_
  /possum, posse, potui:, ----\, _be able, can_ (potent), with the
    infin.
  /veto:, veta:re, vetui:, vetitus\, _forbid_ (veto), vith the infin.;
    opposite of /iubeo:\, _command_
  /vinco:, vincere, vi:ci:, victus\, _conquer_ (in-vincible)
  /vi:vo:, vi:vere, vi:xi:, ----\, _live, be alive_ (re-vive)

_212._ Learn the principal parts of /possum\, _I am able_, _I can_, and
its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. Sec. 495.)

    _a._ /Possum\, _I can_, is a compound of /potis\, _able_, and /sum\,
    _I am_.

_213._ The Infinitive with Subject Accusative. The _infinitive_ (cf.
Sec. 173) is a _verbal noun_. Used as a noun, it has the constructions
of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb.
The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.

  1. In English certain verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and
  the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in
  the objective case and an infinitive, as, _he commanded the men to
  flee_. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the
  substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

  Similarly in Latin, some verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_,
  and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an
  infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, /Is viros
  fugere iussit\, _he commanded the men to flee_.

_214._ RULE. Subject of the Infinitive. _The subject of the infinitive
is in the accusative._

_215._ The Complementary Infinitive. In English a verb is often
followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, _the Romans are
able to conquer the Gauls_. This is called the _complementary_
infinitive, as the predicate is not _complete_ without the added
infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, _verbs of incomplete predication_ are completed by
the infinitive. Among such verbs are /possum\, _I am able, I can_;
/propero\, /maturo\, _I hasten_; /tempto\, _I attempt_; as

  Romani Gallos superare possunt,
    _the Romans are able to_ (or _can_) _conquer the Gauls_
  Bellum gerere maturant,
    _they hasten to wage war_

    _a._ A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive
    agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main
    verb.

      Mali pueri esse boni non possunt, _bad boys are not able to_
        (or _cannot_) _be good._

    Observe that /boni\ agrees with /pueri\.

_216._ The Infinitive used as a Noun. In English the infinitive is
often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a
predicate nominative. For example, _To conquer_ (= conquering) _is
pleasing; To see_ (= seeing) _is to believe_ (= believing). The same use
of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with /est\, as

  Superare est gratum, _to conquer is pleasing_
  Videre est credere, _to see is to believe_

    _a._ In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject,
    which must then be in the accusative case, as

      Galbam superare inimicos est gratum multis,
        _for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many_

    _b._ An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the
    sentence /superare est gratum\, the predicate adjective /gratum\ is
    in the neuter nominative singular to agree with /superare\ the
    subject.

_217._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Magister ludi liberos cum diligentia laborare iussit. 2. Egere
cibo et vino est viris molestum. 3. Viri armati vetuerunt Gallos castra
ibi ponere. 4. Estne legatus in castello an in muro? Is est pro porta.
5. Ubi nostri[1] fugere inceperunt, legatus ab vestris[1] captus est.
6. Galli castellum ibi oppugnaverant ubi praesidium erat infirmum.
7. Alii pugnare temptabant, alii portas petebant. 8. Feminae pro
domiciliis sedebant neque resistere validis Gallis poterant.
9. Bellum est saevum, nec infirmis nec miseris favet. 10. Sed viri arma
postulabant et studebant Gallos de muris agere. 11. Id castellum ab
Gallis occupari Romanis non gratum erit. 12. Galli ubi a Romanis victi
sunt, esse liberi[2] cessaverunt. 13. Diu sine aqua vivere non potestis.

II. 1. The girl began daily to carry water from the river to the gates.
2. The Gauls had pitched their camp in a place suitable for a battle.
3. For a long time they tried in vain to seize the redoubt. 4. Neither
did they cease to hurl weapons against[3] the walls. 5. But they were
not able to (could not) take the town.

    [Footnote 1: Supply _men_. /nostri\, /vestri\, and /sui\ are often
    used as nouns in this way.]

    [Footnote 2: Not _children_. The Romans used /liberi\ either as an
    adjective, meaning _free_, or as a noun, meaning _the free_, thereby
    signifying their _free-born children_. The word was never applied to
    children of slaves.]

    [Footnote 3: /in\ with the accusative.]

_218._ THE FAITHLESS TARPE'IA

Sabini olim cum Romanis bellum gerebant et multas victorias
reportaverant. Iam agros proximos muris vastabant, iam oppido
adpropinquabant. Romani autem in Capitolium fugerant et longe periculo
aberant. Muris validis et saxis altis credebant. Frustra Sabini tela
iaciebant, frustra portas duras petebant; castellum occupare non
poterant. Deinde novum consilium ceperunt.[4]

Tarpeia erat puella Romana pulchra et superba. Cotidie aquam copiis
Romanis in Capitolium portabat. Ei[5] non nocebant Sabini, quod ea sine
armis erat neque Sabini bellum cum feminis liberisque gerebant. Tarpeia
autem maxime amabat ornamenta auri. Cotidie Sabinorum ornamenta videbat
et mox ea desiderare incipiebat. Ei unus ex[6] Sabinis dixit, "Duc
copias Sabinas intra portas, Tarpeia, et maxima erunt praemia tua."

    [Footnote 4: /consilium capere\, _to make a plan_. Why is the
    _perfect_ tense used here and the imperfect in the preceding
    sentences? Explain the use of tenses in the next paragraph.]

    [Footnote 5: Dative with /nocebant\. (Cf. Sec. 154.)]

    [Footnote 6: /ex\, _out of_, i.e. _from the nuumber of_; best
    translated _of_.]

  [Illustration: TARPEIA PUELLA PERFIDA]


LESSON XXXVIII

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

_219._ Sentences are _simple, compound_, or _complex_.

    _a._ A _simple sentence_ is a sentence containing but one statement,
    that is, one subject and one predicate: _The Romans approached the
    town._

    _b._ A _compound sentence_ is a sentence containing two or more
    independent statements:
      _The Romans approached the town_ | and | _the enemy fled._

NOTE. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not
depend upon another statement.

    _c._ A _complex sentence_ is a sentence containing one independent
    statement and one or more dependent statements:
      _When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled._

NOTE. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or
qualifies another statement; thus _the enemy fled_ is independent, and
_when the Romans approached the town_ is dependent or subordinate.

    _d._ The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are
    called _clauses_. In a complex sentence the independent statement is
    called the _main clause_ and the dependent statement the
    _subordinate clause._

_220._ Examine the complex sentence

  _The Romans killed the men who were taken_

Here are two clauses:

  _a._ The main clause, _The Romans killed the men_

  _b._ The subordinate clause, _who were taken_

The word _who_ is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun _men_.
It also connects the subordinate clause _who were taken_ with the noun
_men_. Hence the clause is an _adjective clause_. A pronoun that
connects an _adjective clause_ with a substantive is called a _relative
pronoun_, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is
called its _antecedent_. The relative pronouns in English are _who,
whose, whom, which, what, that_.

_221._ The relative pronoun in Latin is /qui:\, /quae\, /quod\, and it
is declined as follows:

        SINGULAR                  PLURAL
        MASC.   FEM.    NEUT.     MASC.     FEM.      NEUT.
  Nom.  qui:    quae    quod      qui:      quae      quae
  Gen.  cuius   cuius   cuius     quo:rum   qua:rum   quo:rum
  Dat.  cui     cui     cui       quibus    quibus    quibus
  Acc.  quem    quam    quod      quo:s     qua:s     quae
  Abl.  quo:    qua:    quo:      quibus    quibus    quibus

  1. Review the declension of /is\, Sec. 114, and note the similarity in
  the endings. The forms /qui:\, /quae\, and /quibus\ are the only forms
  showing new endings.

NOTE. The genitive /cuius\ and the dative /cui\ are pronounced
_c[oo]i'y[oo]s_ (two syllables) and _c[oo]i_ (one syllable).

_222._ The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:[1]

         MASC. AND FEM.         NEUT.
  Nom.  _who, that_            _which, what, that_
  Gen.  _of whom, whose_       _of which, of what, whose_
  Dat.  _to_ or _for whom_     _to_ or _for which_, _to_ or _for what_
  Acc.  _whom, that_           _which, what, that_
  Abl.  _from_, etc., _whom_   _from_, etc., _which_ or _what_

    [Footnote 1: This table of meanings need not be memorized. It is
    inserted for reference when translating.]

    _a._ We see from the table above that /qui:\, when it refers to a
    person, is translated by some form of _who_ or by _that_; and that
    when it refers to anything else it is translated by _which, what_,
    or _that_.

_223._ Note the following sentences:

  _The Romans killed the men who were taken_
  _The Romans killed the woman who was taken_
  /Romani interfecerunt viros qui capti sunt\
  /Romani interfecerunt feminam quae capta est\

In the first sentence _who_ (qui) refers to the antecedent _men_
(viros), and is _masculine plural_. In the second, _who_ (quae)
refers to _woman_ (feminam), and _feminine singular_. From this we
learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in _gender_ and
_number_. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives
in the same case. /Viros\ and /feminam\ are accusatives, and /qui\ and
/quae\ are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses.
Hence

_224._ RULE. Agreement of the Relative. _A relative pronoun must agree
with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by
the way it is used in its own clause._

_225._ Interrogative Pronouns. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun
that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are _who?_ _which?_
_what?_ In Latin they are /quis?\ /quid?\ (pronoun) and /qui:?\ /quae?\
/quod?\ (adjective).

_226._ Examine the sentences

  _a._ _Who is the man?_ Quis est vir?
  _b._ _What man is leading them?_ Qui vir eos ducit?

In _a_, _who_ is an interrogative _pronoun_. In _b_, _what_ is an
interrogative _adjective_. Observe that in Latin /quis\, /quid\ is the
_pronoun_ and /qui:\, /quae\, /quod\ is the _adjective_.

_227._ 1. The interrogative adjective /qui:\, /quae\, /quod\ is declined
just like the relative pronoun. (See Sec. 221.)

  2. The interrogative pronoun /quis\, /quid\ is declined like /qui:\,
  /quae\, /quod\ in the plural. In the singular it is declined as
  follows:

        MASC. AND FEM.               NEUT.
  Nom.  quis, _who?_                 quid, _what? which?_
  Gen.  cuius, _whose?_              cuius, _whose?_
  Dat.  cui, _to_ or _for whom?_     cui, _to_ or _for_
                                            _what_ or _which?_
  Acc.  quem, _whom?_                quid, _what? which?_
  Abl.  quo:, _from_, etc., _whom?_  quo:, _from_, etc.,
                                             _which_ or _what?_

NOTE. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the
forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis
and quid.

_228._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis est aeger? Servus quem amo est aeger. 2. Cuius scutum habes?
Scutum habeo quod legatus ad castellum misit. 3. Cui legatus suum scutum
dabit? Filio meo scutum dabit. 4. Ubi Germani antiqui vivebant? In terra
quae est proxima Rheno Germani vivebant. 5. Quibuscum[1] Germani bellum
gerebant? Cum Romanis, qui eos superare studebant, Germani bellum
gerebant. 6. Qui viri castra ponunt? Ii sunt viri quorum armis Germani
victi sunt. 7. Quibus telis copiae nostrae eguerunt? Gladiis et telis
nostrae copiae eguerunt. 8. A quibus porta sinistra tenebatur? A sociis
porta sinistra tenebatur. 9. Quae provinciae a Romanis occupatae sunt?
Multae provinciae a Romanis occupatae sunt. 10. Quibus viris dei
favebunt? Bonis viris dei favebunt.

    [Footnote 1: /cum\ is added to the ablative of relative,
    interrogative, and personal pronouns instead of being placed
    before them.]

  [Illustration: GERMANI ANTIQUI]

II. 1. What victory will you announce? 2. I will announce to the people
the victory which the sailors have won. 3. The men who were pitching
camp were eager for battle. 4. Nevertheless they were soon conquered by
the troops which Sextus had sent. 5. They could not resist our forces,
but fled from that place without delay.

_229._ THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (_Concluded_)[2]

Tarpeia, commota ornamentis Sabinorum pulchris, diu resistere non potuit
et respondit: "Date mihi[3] ornamenta quae in sinistris bracchis
geritis, et celeriter copias vestras in Capitolium ducam." Nec Sabini
recusaverunt, sed per duras magnasque castelli portas properaverunt
quo[1] Tarpeia duxit et mox intra validos et altos muros stabant. Tum
sine mora in[2] Tarpeiam scuta graviter iecerunt; nam scuta quoque in
sinistris bracchiis gerebant. Ita perfida puella Tarpeia interfecta est;
ita Sabini Capitolium occupaverunt.

    [Footnote 2: Explain the use of the tenses in this selection.]

    [Footnote 3: _to me._]

    [Footnote 1: quo = _whither_, _to the place where_. Here /quo\ is
    the relative adverb. We have had it used before as the interrogative
    adverb, _whither?_ _to what place?_]

    [Footnote 2: _upon_.]


LESSON XXXIX

THE THIRD DECLENSION : CONSONANT STEMS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /barbarus, -a, -um\, _strange, foreign, barbarous_. As a noun,
    /barbari:, -o:rum\, m., plur., _savages, barbarians_
  /dux, ducis\, m., _leader_ (duke). Cf. the verb /du:co:\
  /eques, equitis\, m., _horseman, cavalryman_ (equestrian)
   iu:dex, iu:dicis, _m., judge_
  /lapis, lapidis\, m., _stone_ (lapidary)
  /mi:les, mi:litis\, m., _soldier_ (militia)
  /pedes, peditis\, m., _foot soldier_ (pedestrian)
  /pe:s, pedis\,[A] m., _foot_ (pedal)
  /pri:nceps, pri:ncipis\, m., _chief_ (principal)
  /re:x, re:gis\, m., _king_ (regal)
  /summus, -a, -um\, _highest, greatest_ (summit)
  /virtu:s, virtu:tis\, f., _manliness, courage_ (virtue)

    [Footnote A: Observe that /e\ is _long_ in the nom. sing, and
    _short_ in the other cases.]

_230._ Bases and Stems. In learning the first and second declensions
we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case
terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we
called the /base\. If to the base we add -a: in the first declension,
and -o in the second, we get what is called the /stem\. Thus /porta\
has the base port- and the stem porta:-; /servus\ has the base
serv- and the stem servo-.

These stem vowels, -a:- and -o-, play so important a part in the
formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from
them respectively the _A_- and _O_-Declensions.

_231._ Nouns of the Third Declension. The third declension is called
the Consonant or _I_-Declension, and its nouns are classified according
to the way the _stem_ ends. If the last letter of the stem is a
consonant, the word is said to have a _consonant stem_; if the stem ends
in -i-, the word is said to have an i-_stem_. _In consonant stems
the stem is the same as the base. In_ i-_stems the stem is formed by
adding_ -i- _to the base._ The presence of the /i\ makes a difference
in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one.

_232._ Consonant stems are divided into two classes:

   I. Stems that add -s to the base to form the nominative singular.
  II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular.

CLASS I

_233._ Stems that add -s to the base in the nominative singular are
either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows:

            pri:nceps,     mi:les, m.,   lapis,
            m., _chief_     _soldier_     m., _stone_
  BASES OR
  STEMS     pri:ncip-      mi:lit-       lapid-

          SINGULAR                                 TERMINATIONS
                                                   M. AND F.
  Nom.    pri:nceps        mi:les         lapis        -s
  Gen.    pri:n'cipis      mi:litis       lapidis      -is
  Dat.    pri:n'cipi:      mi:liti:       lapidi:      -i:
  Acc.    pri:n'cipem      mi:litem       lapidem      -em
  Abl.    pri:n'cipe       mi:lite        lapide       -e

          PLURAL
  Nom.    pri:n'cipe:s     mi:lite:s      lapide:s     -e:s
  Gen.    pri:n'cipum      mi:litum       lapidum      -um
  Dat.    pri:nci'pibus    mi:litibus     lapidibus    -ibus
  Acc.    pri:n'cipe:s     mi:lite:s      lapide:s     -e:s
  Abl.    pri:nci'pibus    mi:litibus     lapidibus    -ibus


            re:x,        iu:dex,       virtu:s, f.,
            m., _king_   m.,_judge_    _manliness_
  BASES OR
  STEMS     re:g-        iu:dic-       virtu:t-

            SINGULAR                              TERMINATIONS
            M. AND F.
  Nom.      re:x         iu:dex        virtu:s        -s
  Gen.      re:gis       iu:dicis      virtu:'tis     -is
  Dat.      re:gi:       iu:dici:      virtu:'ti:     -i:
  Acc.      re:gem       iu:dicem      virtu:'tem     -em
  Abl.      re:ge        iu:dice       virtu:'te      -e

            PLURAL
  Nom.      re:ge:s      iu:dice:s     virtu:'te:s    -e:s
  Gen.      re:gum       iu:dicum      virtu:'tum     -um
  Dat.      re:gibus     iu:dicibus    virtu:'tibus   -ibus
  Acc.      re:ge:s      iu:dice:s     virtu:'te:s    -e:s
  Abl.      re:gibus     iu:dicibus    virtu:'tibus   -ibus

  1. The base or stem is found by dropping -is in the genitive singular.

  2. Most nouns of two syllables, like /pri:nceps\ (pri:ncip-), /mi:les\
  (mi:lit-), /iu:dex\ (iu:dic-), have /i\ in the base, but /e\ in the
  nominative.

    _a._ /lapis\ is an exception to this rule.

  3. Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the
  nominative:

    _a._ A final -t or -d is dropped before -s; thus /miles\ for
    /milets\, /lapis\ for /lapids\, /virtus\ for /virtuts\.

    _b._ A final -c or -g unites with -s and forms -x; thus
    /iudec\ + /s\ = /iudex\, /reg\ + /s\ = /rex\.

  4. Review Sec. 74 and apply the rules to this declension.

  In like manner decline /dux, ducis\, m., _leader_; /eques, equitis\,
  m., _horseman_; /pedes, peditis\, m., _foot soldier_; /pes, pedis\,
  m.,_foot_.

_234._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Neque pedites neque equites occupare castellum Romanum poterant.
2. Summa virtute muros altos cotidie oppugnabant. 3. Pedes militum
lapidibus qui de muro iaciebantur saepe vulnerabantur. 4. Quod novum
consilium dux cepit? 5. Is perfidam puellam pulchris ornamentis
temptavit. 6. Quid puella fecit? 7. Puella commota auro milites per
portas duxit. 8. Tamen praemia quae summo studio petiverat non
reportavit. 9. Apud Romanos antiquos Tarpeia non est laudata.

II. 1. What ship is that which I see? That (illud) ship is the
_Victory_. It is sailing now with a favorable wind and will soon
approach Italy. 2. The judges commanded the savages to be seized and to
be killed. 3. The chiefs of the savages suddenly began to flee, but were
quickly captured by the horsemen. 4. The king led the foot soldiers to
the wall from which the townsmen were hurling stones with the greatest
zeal.

  [Illustration: NAVIGIUM]


LESSON XL

THE THIRD DECLENSION : CONSONANT STEMS (_Continued_)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /Caesar, -aris\, m., _Caesar_
  /capti:vus, -i:\, m., _captive, prisoner_
  /co:nsul, -is\, m., _consul_
  /fra:ter, fra:tris\, m., _brother_ (fraternity)
  /homo:, hominis\, m., _man, human being_
  /impedi:mentum, -i:\, n., _hindrance_ (impediment); plur.
    /impedi:menta, -o:rum\, _baggage_
  /impera:tor, impera:to:ris\, m., _commander in chief, general_
    (emperor)
  /legio:, legio:nis\, f., _legion_
  /ma:ter, ma:tris\, f., _mother_ (maternal)
  /o:rdo:, o:rdinis\, m., _row, rank_ (order)
  /pater, patris\, m., _father_ (paternal)
  /salu:s, salu:tis\, f., _safety_ (salutary)
  /soror, soro:ris\, f., _sister_ (sorority)

CLASS II

_235._ Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are
declined in the other cases exactly like those that add /-s\. They may
be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

_236._ PARADIGMS

MASCULINES AND FEMININES

            co:nsul,      legio:, f.,   o:rdo:,      pater, m.,
            m., _consul_  _legion_      m., _row_    _father_
  BASES OR
  STEMS     co:nsul-      legio:n-      o:rdin-      patr-

            SINGULAR                                        TERMINATIONS
                                                            M. AND F.
  Nom.      co:nsul       legio:        o:rdo:       pater      --
  Gen.      co:nsulis     legio:nis     o:rdinis     patris     -is
  Dat.      co:nsuli:     legio:ni:     o:rdini:     patri:     -i:
  Acc.      co:nsulem     legio:nem     o:rdinem     patrem     -em
  Abl.      co:nsule      legio:ne      o:rdine      patre      -e

            PLURAL
  Nom.      co:nsule:s    legio:ne:s    o:rdine:s    patre:s    -e:s
  Gen.      co:nsulum     legio:num     o:rdinum     patrum     -um
  Dat.      co:nsulibus   legio:nibus   o:rdinibus   patribus   -ibus
  Acc.      co:nsule:s    legio:ne:s    o:rdine:s    patre:s    -e:s
  Abl.      co:nsulibus   legio:nibus   o:rdinibus   patribus   -ibus

  1. With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly
  the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way.

  2. Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -o:n-
  drop -n- and end in -o: in the nominative, as legio: (base or stem
  legio:n-), o:rdo: (base or stem o:rdin-).

  3. Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base
  or stem patr-).

  4. Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole
  declension. _Always learn this with the nominative._

_237._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Audisne tubas, Marce? Non solum tubas audio sed etiam ordines
militum et carros impedimentorum plenos videre possum. 2. Quas legiones
videmus? Eae legiones nuper ex Gallia venerunt. 3. Quid ibi fecerunt?
Studebantne pugnare an sine virtute erant? 4. Multa proelia fecerunt[1]
et magnas victorias et multos captivos reportaverunt. 5. Quis est
imperator earum legionum? Caesar, summus Romanorum imperator. 6. Quis
est eques qui pulchram coronam gerit? Is eques est frater meus. Ei
corona a consule data est quia summa virtute pugnaverat et a barbaris
patriam servaverat.

II. 1. Who has seen my father to-day? 2. I saw him just now (nuper).
He was hastening to your dwelling with your mother and sister. 3. When
men are far from the fatherland and lack food, they cannot be
restrained[2] from wrong[3]. 4. The safety of the soldiers is dear to
Caesar, the general. 5. The chiefs were eager to storm a town full of
grain which was held by the consul. 6. The king forbade the baggage of
the captives to be destroyed.

    [Footnote 1: /proelium facere\ = _to fight a battle._]

    [Footnote 2: /contineo\. Cf. Sec. 180.]

    [Footnote 3: Abl. iniuria.]


LESSON XLI

THE THIRD DECLENSION : CONSONANT STEMS (_Concluded_)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /calamita:s, calamita:tis\, f., _loss, disaster, defeat_ (calamity)
  /caput, capitis\, n., _head_ (capital)
  /flu:men, flu:minis\, n., _river_ (flume)
  /labor, labo:ris\, m., _labor, toil_
  /opus, operis\, n., _work, task_
  /o:ra:tor, o:ra:to:ris\, m., _orator_
  /ri:pa, -ae\, f., _bank_ (of a stream)
  /tempus, temporis\, n., _time_ (temporal)
  /terror, terro:ris\, m., _terror, fear_
  /victor, victo:ris\, m., _victor_

  /accipio:, accipere, acce:pi:, acceptus\, _receive, accept_
  /co:nfirmo:, co:nfi:rma:re, co:nfi:rma:vi:, co:nfi:rma:tus\,
    _strengthen, establish, encourage_ (confirm)

_238._ Neuter consonant stems add no termination in the nominative and
are declined as follows:

            flu:men,      tempus,      opus,       caput,
            n., _river_   n., _time_   n., _work_  n., _head_
  BASES OR
  STEMS     flu:min-      tempor-      oper-       capit-

            SINGULAR                                     TERMINATIONS
  Nom.      flu:men       tempus       opus        caput       --
  Gen.      flu:minis     temporis     operis      capitis     -is
  Dat.      flu:mini:     tempori:     operi:      capiti:     -i:
  Acc.      flu:men       tempus       opus        caput       --
  Abl.      flu:mine      tempore      opere       capite      -e

            PLURAL
  Nom.      flu:mina      tempora      opera      capita       -a
  Gen.      flu:minum     temporum     operum     capitum      -um
  Dat.      flu:minibus   temporibus   operibus   capitibus    -ibus
  Acc.      flu:mina      tempora      opera      capita       -a
  Abl.      flu:minibus   temporibus   operibus   capitibus    -ibus

  1. Review Sec. 74 and apply the rules to this declension.

  2. Bases or stems in -in- have -e- instead of -i- in the nominative,
  as flu:men, base or stem flu:min-.

  3. Most bases or stems in -er- and -or- have -us in the nominative, as
  opus, base or stem oper-; tempus, base or stem tempor-.

_239._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. 1. Barbari ubi Romam ceperunt, maxima regum opera deleverunt.
2. Romani multas calamitates a barbaris acceperunt. 3. Ubi erat summus
terror apud oppidanos, animi dubii eorum ab oratore claro confirmati
sunt. 4. Roma est in ripis fiuminis magni. 5. Ubi Caesar imperator
milites suos arma capere iussit, ii a proelio contineri non potuerunt.
6. Ubi proelium factum est, imperator reperiri non potuit. 7. Imperator
sagitta in capite vulneratus erat et stare non poterat. 8. Eum magno
labore pedes ex proelio portavit. 9. Is bracchiis suis imperatorem
tenuit et eum ex periculis summis servavit. 10. Virtute sua bonus miles
ab imperatore coronam accepit.

II. 1. The consul placed a crown on the head of the victor. 2. Before
the gates he was received by the townsmen. 3. A famous orator praised
him and said, "By your labors you have saved the fatherland from
disaster." 4. The words of the orator were pleasing to the victor.
5. To save the fatherland was a great task.

  [Illustration: Corona]


LESSON XLII

REVIEW LESSON

_240._ Review the paradigms in Secs. 233, 236, 238; and decline all
nouns of the third declension in this selection.

TERROR CIMBRICUS[1]

Olim Cimbri et Teutones, populi Germaniae, cum feminis liberisque
Italiae adpropinquaverant et copias Romanas maximo proelio vicerant. Ubi
fuga legionum nuntiata est, summus erat terror totius Romae, et Romani,
graviter commoti, sacra crebra deis faciebant et salutem petebant.

Tum Manlius orator animos populi ita confirmavit:--"Magnam calamitatem
accepimus. Oppida nostra a Cimbris Teutonibusque capiuntur, agricolae
interficiuntur, agri vastantur, copiae barbarorum Romae adpropinquant.
Itaque, nisi novis animis proelium novum faciemus et Germanos ex patria
nostra sine mora agemus, erit nulla salus feminis nostris liberisque.
Servate liberos! Servate patriam! Antea superati sumus quia imperatores
nostri fuerunt infirmi. Nunc Marius, clarus imperator, qui iam multas
alias victorias reportavit, legiones ducet et animos nostros terrore
Cimbrico liberare maturabit."

Marius tum in Africa bellum gerebat. Sine mora ex Africa in Italiam
vocatus est. Copias novas non solum toti Italiae sed etiam provinciis
sociorum imperavit.[2] Disciplina autem dura laboribusque perpetuis
milites exercuit. Tum cum peditibus equitibusque, qui iam proelio
studebant, ad Germanorum castra celeriter properavit. Diu et acriter
pugnatum est.[3] Denique barbari fugerunt et multi in fuga ab equitibus
sunt interfecti. Marius pater patriae vocatus est.

    [Footnote 1: About the year 100 B.C. the Romans were greatly alarmed
    by an invasion of barbarians from the north known as Cimbri and
    Teutons. They were traveling with wives and children, and had an
    army of 300,000 fighting men. Several Roman armies met defeat, and
    the city was in a panic. Then the Senate called upon Marius, their
    greatest general, to save the country. First he defeated the Teutons
    in Gaul. Next, returning to Italy, he met the Cimbri. A terrible
    battle ensued, in which the Cimbri were utterly destroyed; but the
    _terror Cimbricus_ continued to haunt the Romans for many a year
    thereafter.]

    [Footnote 2: _He made a levy_ (of troops) _upon_, /imperavit\ with
    the acc. and the dat.]

    [Footnote 3: Cf. Sec. 200. II. 2.]


LESSON XLIII

THE THIRD DECLENSION : _I_-STEMS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /animal, anima:lis (-ium[A])\, n., _animal_
  /avis, avis (-ium)\, f., _bird_ (aviation)
  /caede:s, caedis (-ium)\, f., _slaughter_
  calcar, calca:ris (-ium), n., _spur_
  /ci:vis, ci:vis (-ium)\, m. and f., _citizen_ (civic)
  /clie:ns, clientis (-ium)\, m., _retainer, dependent_ (client)
  /fi:nis, fi:nis (-ium)\, m., _end, limit_ (final);
    plur., _country, territory_
  /hostis, hostis (-ium)\, m. and f., _enemy_ in war (hostile).
    Distinguish from /inimi:cus\, which means a _personal_ enemy
  /ignis, ignis (-ium)\, m., _fire_ (ignite)
  /i:nsigne, i:nsignis (-ium)\, n. _decoration, badge_ (ensign)
  /mare, maris (-ium[B])\, n., _sea_ (marine)
  /na:vis, na:vis (-ium)\, f., _ship_ (naval);
  /na:vis longa\, _man-of-war_
  /turris, turris (-ium)\, f., _tower_ (turret)
  /urbs, urbis (-ium)\, f., _city_ (suburb). An /urbs\ is larger than an
    /oppidum\.

    [Footnote A: The genitive plural ending -ium is written to mark
    the i-stems.]

    [Footnote B: The genitive plural of /mare\ is not in use.]

_241._ To decline a noun of the third declension correctly we must know
whether or not it is an i-stem. Nouns with i-stems are

  1. Masculines and feminines:

    _a._ Nouns in -e:s and -i:s with the same number of syllables in
    the genitive as in the nominative. Thus /caede:s, caedis\, is an
    i-stem, but /mi:les, mi:litis\, is a consonant stem.

    _b._ Nouns in -ns and -rs.

    _c._ Nouns of one syllable in -s or -x preceded by a consonant.

  2. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.

_242._ The declension of i-stems is nearly the same as that of
consonant stems. Note the following differences:

_a._ Masculines and feminities have -ium in the genitive plural and
-i:s or -e:s in the accusative plural.

_b._ Neuters have -i: in the ablative singular, and an -i- in every
form of the plural.

_243._ Masculine and Feminine _I_-Stems. Masculine and feminine
i-stems are declined as follows:

         caede:s, f.,  hostis,      urbs, f.,  clie:ns, m.,
         _slaughter_   m., _enemy_  _city_     _retainer_
  STEMS  caedi-        hosti-       urbi-      clienti-
  BASES  caed-         host-        urb-       client-

         SINGULAR                                           TERMINATIONS
                                                            M. AND F.
  Nom.   caede:s       hostis       urbs       clie:ns[1]     -s, -is,
                                                               _or_ -e:s
  Gen.   caedis        hostis       urbis      clientis       -is
  Dat.   caedi:        hosti:       urbi:      clienti:       -i:
  Acc.   caedem        hostem       urbem      clientem       -em (-im)
  Abl.   caede         hoste        urbe       cliente        -e (-i:)

         PLURAL
  Nom.   caede:s       hoste:s      urbe:s     cliente:s      -e:s
  Gen.   caedium       hostium      urbium     clientium      -ium
  Dat.   caedibus      hostibus     urbibus    clientibus     -ibus
  Acc.   caedi:s,      hosti:s,     urbi:s,    clienti:s,     -i:s,
           -e:s          -e:s         -e:s       -e:s           -e:s
  Abl.   caedibus      hostibus     urbibus    clientibus     -ibus

    [Footnote 1: Observe that the vowel before -ns is long, but that
    it is shortened before -nt. Cf. Sec. 12.2, 3.]

  1. /avis\, /ci:vis\, /fi:nis\, /ignis\, /navis\ have the ablative
  singular in -i: or -e.

  2. /turris\ has accusative /turrim\ and ablative /turri:\ or /turre\.

_244._ Neuter _I_-Stems. Neuter i-stems are declined as follows:

          i:nsigne, n.,    animal, n.,     calcar,
          _decoration_     _animal_        n., _spur_
  STEMS   i:nsigni-        anima:li-       calca:ri-
  BASES   i:nsign-         anima:l-        calca:r-

          SINGULAR                                 TERMINATIONS
  Nom.    i:nsigne         animal          calcar       -e _or_ --
  Gen.    i:nsignis        anima:lis       calca:ris    -is
  Dat.    i:nsigni:        anima:li:       calca:ri:    -i:
  Acc.    i:nsigne         animal          calcar       -e _or_ --
  Abl.    i:nsigni:        anima:li:       calca:ri:    -i:

          PLURAL
  Nom.    i:nsignia        anima:lia       calca:ria    -ia
  Gen.    i:nsignium       anima:lium      calca:rium   -ium
  Dat.    i:nsignibus      anima:libus     calca:ribus  -ibus
  Acc.    i:nsignia        anima:lia       calca:ria    -ia
  Abl.    i:nsignibus      anima:libus     calca:ribus  -ibus

  1. Review Sec. 74 and see how it applies to this declension.

  2. The final -i- of the stem is usually dropped in the nominative.
  If not dropped, it is changed to -e.

  3. A long vowel is shortened before final -l or -r. (Cf. Sec. 12.2.)

_245._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. 1. Quam urbem videmus? Urbs quam videtis est Roma. 2. Cives Romani
urbem suam turribus altis et muris longis muniverant. 3. Venti navis
longas prohibebant finibus hostium adpropinquare. 4. Imperator a
clientibus suis calcaria auri et alia insignia accepit. 5. Milites
Romani cum hostibus bella saeva gesserunt et eos caede magna
superaverunt. 6. Alia animalia terram, alia mare amant. 7. Naves longae
quae auxilium ad imperatorem portabant igni ab hostibus deletae sunt.
8. In eo mari avis multas vidimus quae longe a terra volaverant.
9. Nonne vidistis navis longas hostium et ignis quibus urbs nostra
vastabatur? Certe, sed nec caedem civium nec fugam clientium vidimus.
10. Aves et alia animalia, ubi ignem viderunt, salutem fuga petere
celeriter inceperunt. 11. Num. iudex in peditum ordinibus stabat?
Minime, iudex erat apud equites et equus eius insigne pulchrum gerebat.

  [Illustration: NAVES LONGAE]

II. 1. Because of the lack of grain the animals of the village were not
able to live. 2. When the general[2] heard the rumor, he quickly sent a
horseman to the village. 3. The horseman had a beautiful horse and wore
spurs of gold. 4. He said to the citizens, "Send your retainers with
horses and wagons to our camp, and you will receive an abundance of
grain." 5. With happy hearts they hastened to obey his words.[3]

    [Footnote 2: Place first.]

    [Footnote 3: Not the accusative. Why?]


LESSON XLIV

IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION : GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /arbor, arboris\, f., _tree_ (arbor)
  /collis, collis (-ium)\, m., _hill_
  /de:ns, dentis (-ium)\, m., _tooth_ (dentist)
   fo:ns, fontis (-ium), m.. _fountain, spring; source_
  /iter, itineris\, n., _march, journey, route_ (itinerary)
  /me:nsis, me:nsis (-ium)\, m., _month_
  /moenia, -ium\, n., plur., _walls, fortifications_. Cf. /mu:rus\
  /mo:ns, montis (-ium)\, m., _mountain_;
    /summus mo:ns\, _top of the mountain_
  /numquam\, adv., _never_
  /po:ns, pontis\, m., _bridge_ (pontoon)
  /sanguis, sanguinis\, m., blood (sanguinary)
  /summus, -a, -um\, _highest, greatest_ (summit)
  /tra:ns\, prep, with acc., _across_ (transatlantic)
  /vi:s (vi:s)\, gen. plur. /virium\, f. _strength, force, violence_
    (vim)

_246._ PARADIGMS

  [Transcriber's Note:
  The original text gives vi:- and vi:r- as the "Bases" of /vi:s\, and
  omits the "Stems" for both words. The forms have been regularized to
  agree with the inflectional table in the Appendix.]

          vi:s, f., _force_  iter, n., _march_
  STEMS   vi:- and vi:ri-    iter- and itiner-
  BASES   v- and vi:r-       iter- and itiner-

          SINGULAR
  Nom.    vi:s               iter
  Gen.    vi:s (rare)        itineris
  Dat.    vi: (rare)         itineri:
  Acc.    vim                iter
  Abl.    vi:                itinere

           PLURAL
  Nom.    vi:re:s            itinera
  Gen.    vi:rium            itinerum
  Dat.    vi:ribus           itineribus
  Acc.    vi:ri:s, or -e:s   itinera
  Abl.    vi:ribus           itineribus

_247._ There are no rules for gender in the third declension that do not
present numerous exceptions.[1] The following rules, however, are of
great service, and should be thoroughly mastered:

  1. /Masculine\ are nouns in -or, -o:s, -er, -es (gen. -itis).

    _a._ /arbor\, _tree_, is feminine; and /iter\, _march_, is neuter.

  2. /Feminine\ are nouns in -o:, -is, -x, and in -s preceded by
  a consonant or by any long vowel but /o:\.

    _a._ Masculine are /collis\ (_hill_), /lapis\, /me:nsis\ (_month_),
    /o:rdo:\, /pe:s\, and nouns in -nis and -guis--as /ignis\,
    /sanguis\ (_blood_)--and the four monosyllables

      /de:ns\, _a tooth_; /mo:ns\, _a mountain_
      /po:ns\, _a bridge_; /fo:ns\, _a fountain_

  3. /Neuters\ are nouns in -e, -al, -ar, -n, -ur, -us, and
  /caput\.

    [Footnote 1: Review Sec. 60. Words denoting males are, of course,
    masculine, and those denoting females, feminine.]

_248._ Give the gender of the following nouns and the rule by which it
is determined:

  animal   calamitas   flumen    lapis   navis
  avis     caput       ignis     legio   opus
  caede:s   eques       i:nsigne   mare    salu:s
  calcar   fi:nis       labor     mi:les   urbs

_249._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. _The First Bridge over the Rhine._ Salus sociorum erat semper cara
Romanis. Olim Galli, amici Romanorum, multas iniurias ab Germanis qui
trans flumen Rhenum vivebant acceperant. Ubi legati ab iis ad Caesarem
imperatorem Romanum venerunt et auxilium postulaverunt, Romani magnis
itineribus ad hostium finis properaverunt. Mox ad ripas magni fluminis
venerunt. Imperator studebat copias suas trans fluvium ducere, sed nulla
via[2] poterat. Nullas navis habebat. Alta erat aqua. Imperator autem,
vir clarus, numquam adversa fortuna commotus, novum consilium cepit.
Iussit suos[3] in[4] lato flumine facere pontem. Numquam antea pons in
Rheno visus erat. Hostes ubi pontem quem Romani fecerant viderunt, summo
terrore commoti, sine mora fugam parare inceperunt.

II. 1. The enemy had taken (possession of) the top of the mountain.
2. There were many trees on the opposite hills. 3. We pitched our camp
near (ad) a beautiful spring. 4. A march through the enemies' country
is never without danger. 5. The time of the month was suitable for the
march. 6. The teeth of the monster were long. 7. When the foot
soldiers[5] saw the blood of the captives, they began to assail the
fortifications with the greatest violence.[2]

    [Footnote 2: Abl. of manner.]

    [Footnote 3: /suos\, used as a noun, _his men_.]

    [Footnote 4: We say _build a bridge over_; the Romans, _make a
    bridge on_.]

    [Footnote 5: Place first.]

       *       *       *       *       *

  Fifth Review, Lessons XXXVII-XLIV, Secs. 517-520

       *       *       *       *       *

LESSON XLV

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION : _I_-STEMS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /a:cer, a:cris, a:cre\, _sharp, keen, eager_ (acrid)
  /brevis, breve\, _short, brief_
  /difficilis, difficile\, _difficult_
  /facilis, facile\, _facile, easy_
  /fortis, forte\, _brave_ (fortitude)
  /gravis, grave\, _heavy, severe, serious_ (grave)
  /omnis, omne\, _every, all_ (omnibus)
  /pa:r\, gen. /paris\, _equal_ (par)
  /pauci:, -ae, -a\, _few, only a few_ (paucity)
  /secundus, -a, -um\, _second; favorable_, opposite of adversus
  /signum, -i:\, n., _signal, sign, standard_
  /ve:lo:x\, gen. /ve:lo:cis\, _swift_ (velocity)

  /conloco:, conloca:re, conloca:vi:, conloca:tus\, _arrange, station,
    place_ (collocation)
  /de:mo:nstro:, de:mo:nstra:re, de:mo:nstra:vi:, de:mo:nstra:tus\,
    _point out, explain_ (demonstrate)
  /mando:, manda:re, manda:vi:, manda:tus\, _commit, intrust_ (mandate)

_250._ Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions (like
/bonus\, /aeger\, or /liber\), or they are of the third declension.

_251._ Nearly all adjectives of the third declension have i-_stems_,
and they are declined almost like nouns with i-stems.

_252._ Adjectives learned thus far have had a different form in the
nominative for each gender, as, /bonus\, m.; /bona\, f.; /bonum\, n.
Such an adjective is called an _adjective of three endings_. Adjectives
of the third declension are of the following classes:

    I. Adjectives of three endings--
      a different form in the nominative for each gender.

   II. Adjectives of two endings--
      masculine and feminine nominative alike, the neuter different.

  III. Adjectives of one ending--
      masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative all alike.

_253._ Adjectives of the third declension in -er have three endings;
those in -is have two endings; the others have one ending.

CLASS I

_254._ Adjectives of Three Endings are declined as follows:

        a:cer, a:cris, a:cre, _keen, eager_
        STEM a:cri-
        BASE a:cr-

          SINGULAR                PLURAL
          MASC.   FEM.    NEUT.   MASC.          FEM.           NEUT.
  Nom.  a:cer   a:cris  a:cre     a:cre:s        a:cre:s        a:cria
  Gen.  a:cris  a:cris  a:cris    a:crium        a:crium        a:crium
  Dat.  a:cri:  a:cri:  a:cri:    a:cribus       a:cribus       a:cribus
  Acc.  a:crem  a:crem  a:cre     a:cri:s, -e:s  a:cri:s, -e:s  a:cria
  Abl.  a:cri:  a:cri:  a:cri:    a:cribus       a:cribus       a:cribus


CLASS II

_255._ Adjectives of Two Endings are declined as follows:

        omnis, omne, _every, all_[1]
        STEM omni-
        BASE omn-

        SINGULAR                 PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.    MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.
  Nom.  omnis           omne     omne:s          omnia
  Gen.  omnis           omnis    omnium          omnium
  Dat.  omni:           omni:    omnibus         omnibus
  Acc.  omnem           omne     omni:s, -e:s    omnia
  Abl.  omni:           omni:    omnibus         omnibus

    [Footnote 1: /omnis\ is usually translated _every_ in the singular
    and _all_ in the plural.]

CLASS III

_256._ Adjectives of One Ending are declined as follows:

        pa:r, _equal_
        STEM pari-
        BASE par-

        SINGULAR                 PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.    MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.
  Nom.  pa:r            pa:r     pare:s          paria
  Gen.  paris           paris    parium          parium
  Dat.  pari:           pari:    paribus         paribus
  Acc.  parem           pa:r     pari:s, -e:s    paria
  Abl.  pari:           pari:    paribus         paribus

  1. All i-stem adjectives have -i: in the ablative singular.

  2. Observe that the several cases of adjectives of one ending have the
  same form for all genders excepting in the accusative singular and in
  the nominative and accusative plural.

  3. Decline /vir acer\, /legio acris\, /animal acre\, /ager omnis\,
  /scutum omne\, /proelium par\.

_257._ There are a few adjectives of one ending that have consonant
stems. They are declined exactly like nouns with consonant stems.

_258._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. _The Romans invade the Enemy's Country._ Olim pedites Romani cum
equitibus velocibus in hostium urbem iter faciebant. Ubi non longe
afuerunt, rapuerunt agricolam, qui eis viam brevem et facilem
demonstravit. Iam Romani moenia alta, turris validas aliaque opera urbis
videre poterant. In moenibus stabant multi principes. Principes ubi
viderunt Romanos, iusserunt civis lapides aliaque tela de muris iacere.
Tum milites fortes contineri a proelio non poterant et acer imperator
signum tuba dari iussit. Summa vi omnes maturaverunt. Imperator Sexto
legato impedimenta omnia mandavit. Sextus impedimenta in summo colle
conlocavit. Grave et acre erat proelium, sed hostes non pares Romanis
erant. Alii interfecti, alii capti sunt. Apud captivos erant mater
sororque regis. Pauci Romanorum ab hostibus vulnerati sunt. Secundum
proelium Romanis erat gratum. Fortuna fortibus semper favet.

II. 1. Some months are short, others are long. 2. To seize the top of
the mountain was difficult. 3. Among the hills of Italy are many
beautiful springs. 4. The soldiers were sitting where the baggage had
been placed because their feet were weary. 5. The city which the
soldiers were eager to storm had been fortified by strong walls and high
towers. 6. Did not the king intrust a heavy crown of gold and all his
money to a faithless slave? Yes, but the slave had never before been
faithless.

  [Illustration: AQUILA LEGIONIS]


LESSON XLVI

THE FOURTH OR _U_-DECLENSION

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /adventus, -u:s\, m., _approach, arrival_ (advent)
  /ante\, prep, with acc., _before_ (ante-date)
  /cornu:, -u:s\, n., _horn, wing_ of an army (cornucopia);
    /a: dextro: cornu:\, _on the right wing_;
    /a: sinistro: cornu:\, _on the left wing_
  /equita:tus, -u:s\, m., _cavalry_
  /exercitus, -u:s\, m., _army_
  /impetus, -u:s\, m., _attack_ (impetus);
    /impetum facere in\, with acc., _to make an attack on_
  /lacus, -u:s, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus\, m., _lake_
  /manus, -u:s\, f., _hand; band, force_ (manual)
  /portus, -u:s\, m., _harbor_ (port)
  /post\, prep, with acc., _behind, after_ (post-mortem)

  /cremo:, crema:re, crema:vi:, crema:tus\, _burn_ (cremate)
  /exerceo:, exerce:re, exercui:, exercitus\, _practice, drill, train_
    (exercise)

_259._ Nouns of the fourth declension are either masculine or neuter.

_260._ Masculine nouns end in -us, neuters in -u:. The genitive ends
in -u:s.

    _a._ Feminine by exception are /domus\, _house_; /manus\, _hand_;
    and a few others.

PARADIGMS

  [Transcriber's Note:
  The "Stems" are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied
  from the inflectional table in the Appendix.]

         adventus,       cornu:,
         m., _arrival_   n., _horn_
  STEMS  adventu-        cornu-
  BASES  advent-         corn-

         SINGULAR                  TERMINATIONS
         MASC.           NEUT.
  Nom.   adventus        cornu:     -us       -u:
  Gen.   adventu:s       cornu:s    -u:s      -u:s
  Dat.   adventui: (u:)  cornu:     -ui: (u:) -u:
  Acc.   adventum        cornu:     -um       -u:
  Abl.   adventu:        cornu:     -u:       -u:

          PLURAL
  Nom.   adventu:s       cornua     -u:s      -ua
  Gen.   adventuum       cornuum    -uum      -uum
  Dat.   adventibus      cornibus   -ibus     -ibus
  Acc.   adventu:s       cornua     -u:s      -ua
  Abl.   adventibus      cornibus   -ibus     -ibus

  1. Observe that the base is found, as in other declensions, by
  dropping the ending of the genitive singular.

  2. /lacus\, _lake_, has the ending -ubus in the dative and ablative
  plural; /portus\, _harbor_, has either -ubus or -ibus.

  3. /cornu:\ is the only neuter that is in common use.

_261._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. 1. Ante adventum Caesaris veloces hostium equites acrem impetum in
castra fecerunt. 2. Continere exercitum a proelio non facile erat.
3. Post adventum suum Caesar iussit legiones ex castris duci. 4. Pro
castris cum hostium equitatu pugnatum est. 5. Post tempus breve
equitatus trans flumen fugit ubi castra hostium posita erant. 6. Tum
victor imperator agros vastavit et vicos hostium cremavit. 7. Castra
autem non oppugnavit quia milites erant defessi et locus difficilis.
8. Hostes non cessaverunt iacere tela, quae paucis nocuerunt. 9. Post
adversum proelium principes Gallorum legatos ad Caesarem mittere
studebant, sed populo persuadere non poterant.

II. 1. Did you see the man-of-war on the lake? 2. I did not see it
(_fem_.) on the lake, but I saw it in the harbor. 3. Because of the
strong wind the sailor forbade his brother to sail. 4. Caesar didn't
make an attack on the cavalry on the right wing, did he? 5. No, he made
an attack on the left wing. 6. Who taught your swift horse to obey?
7. I trained my horse with my (own) hands, nor was the task difficult.
8. He is a beautiful animal and has great strength.


LESSON XLVII

EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE : THE DECLENSION OF _DOMUS_

  [Special Vocabulary]

   Athe:nae, -a:rum, f., plur., _Athens_
   Corinthus, -i:, f., _Corinth_
  /domus, -u:s\, locative /domi:\, f., _house, home_ (dome). Cf.
    /domicilium\
  /Gena:va, -ae\, f., _Geneva_
   Pompe:ii, -o:rum, m., plur., _Pompeii_, a city in Campania. See map
  /propter\, prep. with acc., _on account of, because of_
   ru:s, ru:ris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. /ru:ra\, n., _country_
    (rustic)
  /tergum, tergi:\, n., _back_; /a: tergo:\, _behind, in the rear_
  /vulnus, vulneris\, n., _wound_ (vulnerable)

  /committo:, committere, commi:si:, commissus\, _intrust, commit;_
    /proelium committere\, _join battle_
  /convoco:, convoca:re, convoca:vi:, convoca:tus\, _call together,
    summon_ (convoke)
  /timeo:, time:re, timui:, ----\, _fear; be afraid_ (timid)
  /verto:, vertere, verti:, versus\, _turn, change_ (convert);
    /terga vertere\, _to turn the backs_, hence _to retreat_

_262._ We have become thoroughly familiar with expressions like the
following:

  Galba ad (or in) oppidum properat
  Galba ab (de or ex) oppido properat
  Galba in oppido habitat

From these expressions we may deduce the following rules:

_263._ RULE. Accusative of the Place to. _The /place to which\ is
expressed by /ad\ or /in\ with the accusative. This answers the question
Whither?_

_264._ RULE. Ablative of the Place from. _The /place from which\ is
expressed by /a:\ or /ab\, /de\, /e:\ or /ex\, with the separative
ablative. This answers the question Whence?_ (Cf. Rule, Sec. 179.)

_265._ RULE. Ablative of the Place at or in. _The /place at or in
which\ is expressed by the ablative with /in\. This answers the question
Where?_

    _a._ The ablative denoting the _place where_ is called the _locative
    ablative_ (cf. /locus\, _place_).

_266._ Exceptions. Names of towns, small islands,[1] /domus\, _home_,
/ru:s\, _country_, and a few other words in common use omit the
prepositions in expressions of place, as,

  Galba Athenas properat, _Galba hastens to Athens_
  Galba Athenis properat, _Galba hastens from Athens_
  Galba Athenis habitat, _Galba lives at_ (or _in_) _Athens_
  Galba domum properat, _Galba hastens home_
  Galba rus properat, _Galba hastens to the country_
  Galba domo properat, _Galba hastens from home_
  Galba rure properat, _Galba hastens from the country_
  Galba ruri (less commonly rure) habitat,
    _Galba lives in the country_

    _a._ Names of _countries_, like /Germania\, /Italia\, etc., do not
    come under these exceptions. _With them prepositions must not be
    omitted._

    [Footnote 1: Small islands are classed with towns because they
    generally have but one town, and the name of the town is the same as
    the name of the island.]

_267._ The Locative Case. We saw above that the place-relation
expressed by _at_ or _in_ is regularly covered by the locative ablative.
However, Latin originally expressed this relation by a separate form
known as the _locative case_. This case has been everywhere merged in
the ablative excepting in the singular number of the first and second
declensions. The form of the locative in these declensions is like the
genitive singular, and its use is limited to names of towns and small
islands, /domi:\, _at home_, and a few other words.

_268._ RULE. Locative and Locative Ablative. _To express the /place in
which\ with names of towns and small islands, /if they are singular and
of the first or second declension\, use the locative; otherwise use the
locative ablative without a preposition; as_,

  Galba Romae habitat, _Galba lives at Rome_
  Galba Corinthi habitat, _Galba lives at Corinth_
  Galba domi habitat, _Galba lives at home_

Here /Romae\, /Corinthi\, and /domi\ are _locatives_, being _singular_
and of the first and second declensions respectively. But in

  Galba Athenis habitat, _Galba lives at Athens_,
  Galba Pompeiis habitat, _Galba lives at Pompeii_

/Athenis\ and /Pompeiis\ are locative ablatives. These words can have no
locative case, as the nominatives /Athenae\ and /Pompeii\ are_plural_
and there is no plural locative case form.

_269._ The word /domus\, _home, house_, has forms of both the second and
the fourth declension. Learn its declension (Sec. 468).

_270._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. 1. Corinthi omnia insignia auri a ducibus victoribus rapta erant.
2. Caesar Genavam exercitum magnis itineribus duxit. 3. Quem pontem
hostes cremaverant? Pontem in Rheno hostes cremaverant. 4. Pompeiis
multas Romanorum domos videre poteritis. 5. Roma consul equo veloci
rus properavit. 6. Domi consulis homines multi sedebant. 7. Imperator
iusserat legatum Athenas cum multis navibus longis navigare. 8. Ante
moenia urbis sunt ordines arborum altarum. 9. Propter arbores altas nec
lacum nec portum reperire potuimus. 10. Proeliis crebris Caesar legiones
suas quae erant in Gallia exercebat. 11. Cotidie in loco idoneo castra
ponebat et muniebat.

II. 1. Caesar, the famous general, when he had departed from Rome,
hastened to the Roman province on a swift horse.[2] 2. He had heard a
rumor concerning the allies at Geneva. 3. After his arrival Caesar
called the soldiers together and commanded them to join battle. 4. The
enemy hastened to retreat, some because[3] they were afraid, others
because[3] of wounds. 5. Recently I was at Athens and saw the place
where the judges used to sit.[4] 6. Marcus and Sextus are my brothers;
the one lives at Rome, the other in the country.

    [Footnote 2: Latin says "by a swift horse." What construction?]

    [Footnote 3: Distinguish between the English conjunction _because_
    (quia or quod) and the preposition _because of_ (propter).]

    [Footnote 4: _used to sit_, express by the imperfect.]

  [Illustration: DAEDALUS ET ICARUS]

_271._ DAED'ALUS AND IC'ARUS

Creta est insula antiqua quae aqua alta magni maris pulsatur. Ibi olim
Minos erat rex. Ad eum venit Daedalus qui ex Graecia patria fugiebat.
Eum Minos rex benignis verbis accepit et ei domicilium in Creta dedit.
[5]Quo in loco Daedalus sine cura vivebat et regi multa et clara opera
faciebat. Post tempus longum autem Daedalus patriam caram desiderare
incepit. Domum properare studebat, sed regi persuadere non potuit et
mare saevum fugam vetabat.

    [Footnote 5: _And in this place_; /quo\ does not here introduce a
    subordinate relative clause, but establishes the connection with the
    preceding sentence. Such a relative is called a _connecting
    relative_, and is translated by _and_ and a demonstrative or
    personal pronoun.]


LESSON XLVIII

THE FIFTH OR E:-DECLENSION : THE ABLATIVE OF TIME

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /acie:s, -e:i:\, f., _line of battle_
  /aesta:s, aesta:tis\, f., _summer_
  /annus, -i:\, m., _year_ (annual)
  /die:s, die:i:\, m., _day_ (diary)
  /fide:s, fidei:\, no plur., f., _faith, trust; promise, word;
    protection_; /in fidem veni:re\, _to come under the protection_
  /fluctus, -u:s\, m. _wave, billow_ (fluctuate)
  /hiems, hiemis\, f., _winter_
  /ho:ra, -ae\, f., _hour_
  /lu:x, lu:cis\, f., _light_ (lucid); /pri:ma lux\, _daybreak_
  /meri:die:s\, acc. -em, abl. -e:, no plur., m., _midday_ (meridian)
  /nox, noctis (-ium)\, f., _night_ (nocturnal)
  /pri:mus, -a, -um\, _first_ (prime)
  /re:s, rei:\, f., _thing, matter_ (real);
  /re:s gestae\, _deeds, exploits_ (lit. _things performed_);
    /re:s adversae\, _adversity_; /re:s secundae\, _prosperity_
  /spe:s, spei:\, f., _hope_

_272._ Gender. Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except
/die:s\, _day_, and /meri:die:s\, _midday_, which are usually masculine.

_273._ PARADIGMS

  [Transcriber's Note:
  The "Stems" are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied
  from the inflectional table in the Appendix.]

         die:s,      re:s, f.,
         m., _day_   _thing_
  STEMS  die:-       re:-
  BASES  di-         r-

         SINGULAR            TERMINATIONS
  Nom.   die:s       re:s      -e:s
  Gen.   die:i:      rei:      -e:i: _or_ -ei:
  Dat.   die:i:      rei:      -e:i: _or_ -ei:
  Acc.   diem        rem       -em
  Abl.   die:        re:       -e:

         PLURAL
  Nom.   die:s       re:s      -e:s
  Gen.   die:rum     re:rum    -e:rum
  Dat.   die:bus     re:bus    -e:bus
  Acc.   die:s       re:s      -e:s
  Abl.   die:bus     re:bus    -e:bus

  1. The vowel /e\ which appears in every form is regularly long. It is
  shortened in the ending -ei: after a consonant, as in /r-ei:\; and
  before -m in the accusative singular, as in /di-em\. (Cf. Sec. 12.2.)

  2. Only /die:s\ and /re:s\ are complete in the plural. Most other
  nouns of this declension lack the plural. /Acie:s\, _line of battle_,
  and /spe:s\, _hope_, have the nominative and accusative plural.

_274._ The ablative relation (Sec. 50) which is expressed by the
prepositions _at, in_, or _on_ may refer not only to place, but also to
time, as _at noon, in summer, on the first day_. The ablative which is
used to express this relation is called the _ablative of time_.

_275._ RULE. The Ablative of Time. _The time /when\ or /within which\
anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition._

    _a._ Occasionally the preposition /_in_\ is found. Compare the
    English _Next day we started_ and _/On\ the next day we started_.

_276._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294.

I. _Galba the Farmer._ Galba agricola ruri vivit. Cotidie prima luce
laborare incipit, nec ante noctem in studio suo cessat. Meridie Iulia
filia eum ad cenam vocat. Nocte pedes defessos domum vertit. Aestate
filii agricolae auxilium patri dant. Hieme agricola eos in ludum mittit.
Ibi magister pueris multas fabulas de rebus gestis Caesaris narrat.
Aestate filii agricolae perpetuis laboribus exercentur nec grave agri
opus est iis molestum. Galba sine ulla cura vivit nec res adversas
timet.

II. 1. In that month there were many battles in Gaul. 2. The cavalry of
the enemy made an attack upon Caesar's line of battle. 3. In the first
hour of the night the ship was overcome by the billows. 4. On the second
day the savages were eager to come under Caesar's protection. 5. The
king had joined battle, moved by the hope of victory. 6. That year a
fire destroyed many birds and other animals. 7. We saw blood on the wild
beast's teeth.

_277._ DAED'ALUS AND IC'ARUS (_Continued_)

Tum Daedalus gravibus curis commotus filio suo Icaro ita dixit: "Animus
meus, Icare, est plenus tristitiae nec oculi lacrimis egent. Discedere
ex Creta, Athenas properare, maxime studeo; sed rex recusat audire verba
mea et omnem reditus spem eripit. Sed numquam rebus adversis vincar.
Terra et mare sunt inimica, sed aliam fugae viam reperiam." Tum in artis
ignotas animum dimittit et mirum capit consilium. Nam pennas in ordine
ponit et veras alas facit.


LESSON XLIX

PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED : PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /ami:citia, -ae\, f., _friendship_  (amicable)
  /itaque\, conj., _and so, therefore, accordingly_
  /littera, -ae\, f., _a letter_ of the alphabet;
    plur., _a letter, an epistle_
  /metus, metu:s\, m., _fear_
  /nihil, indeclinable\, n., _nothing_ (nihilist)
  /nu:ntius, nu:nti:\, m., _messenger_. Cf. /nu:ntio:\
  /pa:x, pa:cis\, f., _peace_ (pacify)
  /re:gnum, -i:\, n., _reign, sovereignty, kingdom_
  /supplicum, suppli'ci:\, n., _punishment_;
    /supplicum su:mere de:\, with abl., _inflict punishment on_;
    /supplicum dare\, _suffer punishment_. Cf. /poena\

  /placeo:, place:re, placui:, placitus\, _be pleasing to, please_,
    with dative. Cf. Sec. 154
  /su:mo:, su:mere, su:mpsi:, su:mptus\, _take up, assume_
  /sustineo:, sustine:re, sustinui:, sustentus\, _sustain_

_278._ We have the same kinds of pronouns in Latin as in English. They
are divided into the following eight classes:

  1. /Personal pronouns\, which show the person speaking, spoken to, or
  spoken of; as, /ego\, _I_; /tu\, _you_; /is\, _he_. (Cf. Sec. 279.
  etc.)

  2. /Possessive pronouns\, which denote possession; as, /meus\, /tuus\,
  /suus\, etc. (Cf. Sec. 98.)

  3. /Reflexive pronouns\, used in the predicate to refer back to the
  subject; as, _he saw himself_. (Cf. Sec. 281.)

  4. /Intensive pronouns\, used to emphasize a noun or pronoun; as, _I
  myself saw it_. (Cf. Sec. 285.)

  5. /Demonstrative pronouns\, which point out persons or things; as,
  /is\, _this, that_. (Cf. Sec. 112.)

  6. /Relative pronouns\, which connect a subordinate adjective clause
  with an antecedent; as, /qui\, _who_. (Cf. Sec. 220.)

  7. /Interrogative pronouns\, which ask a question; as, /quis\, _who?_
  (Cf. Sec. 225.)

  8. /Indefinite pronouns\, which point out indefinitely; as, _some one,
  any one, some, certain ones_, etc. (Cf. Sec. 296.)

_279._ The demonstrative pronoun /is\, /ea\, /id\, as we learned in
Sec. 115, is regularly used as the personal pronoun of the third person
(_he_, _she_, _it_, _they_, etc.).

_280._ The personal pronouns of the first person are /ego\, _I_; /no:s\,
_we_; of the second person, /tu:\, _thou_ or _you_; /vo:s\, _ye_ or
_you_. They are declined as follows:

       SINGULAR
       FIRST PERSON                   SECOND PERSON
  Nom. ego, _I_                       tu:, _you_
  Gen. mei:, _of me_                  tui:, _of you_
  Dat. mihi, _to_ or _for me_         tibi, _to_ or _for you_
  Acc. me:, _me_                      te:, _you_
  Abl. me:, _with, from_, etc., _me_  te:, _with, from_, etc., _you_

       PLURAL
  Nom. no:s, _we_                     vo:s, _you_
  Gen. nostrum or nostri:, _of us_    vestrum or vestri:, _of you_
  Dat. no:bi:s, _to_ or _for us_      vo:bi:s, _to_ or _for you_
  Acc. no:s, _us_                     vo:s, _you_
  Abl. no:bi:s, _with, from_,         vo:bi:s, _with, from_,
                     etc., _us_                     etc., _you_

  1. The personal pronouns are not used in the nominative excepting for
  emphasis or contrast.

_281._ The Reflexive Pronouns. 1. The personal pronouns /ego\ and /tu:\
may be used in the predicate as reflexives; as,

    video me, _I see myself_
      videmus nos, _we see ourselves_
    vides te, _you see yourself_
      videtis vos, _you see yourselves_

  2. The reflexive pronoun of the third person (_himself, herself,
  itself, themselves_) has a special form, used only in these senses,
  and declined alike in the singular and plural.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL
    Gen.  sui:         Acc.  se:
    Dat.  sibi         Abl.  se:

  EXAMPLES
    Puer se videt, _the boy sees himself_
    Puella se videt, _the girl sees herself_
    Animal se videt, _the animal sees itself_
    Ii se vident, _they see themselves_

    _a._ The form /se:\ is sometimes doubled, /se:se:\, for emphasis.

  3. Give the Latin for

    _I teach myself_        _We teach ourselves_
    _You teach yourself_    _You teach yourselves_
    _He teaches himself_    _They teach themselves_

_282._ The preposition /cum\, when used with the ablative of /ego\,
/tu:\, or /sui:\, is appended to the form, as, /me:cum\, _with me_;
/te:cum\, _with you_; /no:bi:scum\, _with us_; etc.

_283._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294.

I. 1. Mea mater est cara mihi et tua mater est cara tibi. 2. Vestrae
litterae erant gratae nobis et nostrae litterae erant gratae vobis.
3. Nuntius regis qui nobiscum est nihil respondebit. 4. Nuntii pacem
amicitiamque sibi et suis sociis postulaverunt. 5. Si tu arma sumes,
ego regnum occupabo. 6. Uter vestrum est civis Romanus? Neuter nostrum.
7. Eo tempore multi supplicium dederunt quia regnum petierant. 8. Sume
supplicium, Caesar, de hostibus patriae acribus. 9. Prima luce alii
metu commoti sese fugae mandaverunt; alii autem magna virtute impetum
exercitus nostri sustinuerunt. 10. Soror regis, ubi de adverso proelio
audivit, sese Pompeiis interfecit.

II. 1. Whom do you teach? I teach myself. 2. The soldier wounded himself
with his sword. 3. The master praises us, but you he does not praise.
4. Therefore he will inflict punishment on you, but we shall not suffer
punishment. 5. Who will march (i.e. make a march) with me to Rome?
6. I will march with you to the gates of the city. 7. Who will show
us[1] the way? The gods will show you[1] the way.

    [Footnote 1: Not accusative.]

DAED'ALUS AND IC'ARUS (_Concluded_)

_284._ Puer Icarus una[2] stabat et mirum patris opus videbat. Postquam
manus ultima[3] alis imposita est, Daedalus eas temptavit et similis avi
in auras volavit. Tum alas umeris fili adligavit et docuit eum volare
et dixit, "Te veto, mi fili, adpropinquare aut soli aut mari. Si
fluctibus adpropinquaveris,[4] aqua alis tuis nocebit, et si soli
adpropinquaveris,[4] ignis eas cremabit." Tum pater et filius iter
difficile incipiunt. Alas movent et aurae sese committunt. Sed stultus
puer verbis patris non paret. Soli adpropinquat. Alae cremantur et
Icarus in mare decidit et vitam amittit. Daedalus autem sine ullo
periculo trans fluctus ad insulam Siciliam volavit.

    [Footnote 2: Adverb, see vocabulary.]

    [Footnote 3: /manus ultima\, _the finishing touch_. What literally?]

    [Footnote 4: Future perfect. Translate by the present.]


LESSON L

THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN _IPSE_ AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE _IDEM_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /corpus, corporis\, n., _body_ (corporal)
  /de:nsus, -a, -um\, _dense_
  /i:dem, e'adem, idem\, demonstrative pronoun, _the same_ (identity)
  /ipse, ipsa, ipsum\, intensive pronoun, _self; even, very_
  /mi:rus, -a, -um\, _wonderful, marvelous_ (miracle)
  /o:lim\, adv., _formerly, once upon a time_
  /pars, partis (-ium)\, f., _part, region, direction_
  /quoque\, adv., _also_. Stands _after_ the word which it emphasizes
  /so:l, so:lis\, m., _sun_ (solar)
  /ve:rus, -a, -um\, _true, real_ (verity)

  /de:beo:, de:be:re, de:bui:, de:bitus\, _owe, ought_ (debt)
  /e:ripio:, e:ripere, e:ripui:, e:reptus\, _snatch from_

_285._ /Ipse\ means _-self_ (_him-self, her-self_, etc.) or is
translated by _even_ or _very_. It is used to emphasize a noun or
pronoun, expressed or understood, with which it agrees like an
adjective.

    _a._ /Ipse\ must be carefully distinguished from the reflexive
    /sui\. The latter is always used as a pronoun, while /ipse\ is
    regularly adjective. Compare

      Homo se videt, _the man sees himself_ (reflexive)
      Homo ipse periculum videt,
        _the man himself_ (intensive) _sees the danger_
      Homo ipsum periculum videt,
        _the man sees the danger itself_ (intensive)

_286._ Except for the one form /ipse\, the intensive pronoun is declined
exactly like the nine irregular adjectives (cf. Secs. 108, 109). Learn
the declension (Sec. 481).

_287._ The demonstrative /idem\, meaning _the same_, is a compound of
/is\. It is declined as follows:

        SINGULAR
        MASC.        FEM.         NEUT.
  Nom.  i:dem        e'adem       idem
  Gen.  eius'dem     eius'dem     eius'dem
  Dat.  ei:'dem      ei:'dem       ei:'dem
  Acc.  eun'dem      ean'dem      idem
  Abl.  eo:'dem      ea:'dem       eo:'dem

        PLURAL
  Nom.  ii:'dem      eae'dem      e'adem
         ei:'dem
  Gen.  eo:run'dem   ea:run'dem   eo:run'dem
  Dat.  ii:s'dem     ii:s'dem     ii:s'dem
         ei:s'dem     ei:s'dem     ei:s'dem
  Acc.  eo:s'dem     ea:s'dem     e'adem
  Abl.  ii:s'dem     ii:s'dem     ii:s'dem
         ei:s'dem     ei:s'dem     ei:s'dem

    _a._ From forms like /eundem\ (eum + -dem), /eo:rundem\ (eo:rum
    + -dem), we learn the rule that /m\ before /d\ is changed to /n\.

    _b._ The forms /ii:dem\, /ii:sdem\ are often spelled and pronounced
    with one /i:\.

_288._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. 1. Ego et tu[1] in eadem urbe vivimus. 2. Iter ipsum non timemus sed
feras saevas quae in silva densa esse dicuntur. 3. Olim nos ipsi idem
iter fecimus. 4. Eo tempore multas feras vidimus. 5. Sed nobis non
nocuerunt. 6. Caesar ipse scutum de manibus militis eripuit et in ipsam
aciem properavit. 7. Itaque milites summa virtute tela in hostium
corpora iecerunt. 8. Romani quoque gravia vulnera acceperunt. 9. Denique
hostes terga verterunt et ommis in partis[2] fugerunt. 10. Eadem hora
litterae Romam ab imperatore ipso missae sunt. 11. Eodem mense captivi
quoque in Italiam missi sunt. 12. Sed multi propter vulnera iter
difficile trans montis facere recusabant et Genavae esse dicebantur.

II. 1. At Pompeii there is a wonderful mountain. 2. When I was in that
place, I myself saw that mountain. 3. On the same day many cities were
destroyed by fire and stones from that very mountain. 4. You have not
heard the true story of that calamity, have you?[3] 5. On that day the
very sun could not give light to men. 6. You yourself ought to tell (to)
us that story.

    [Footnote 1: Observe that in Latin we say _I and you_, not _you
    and I_.]

    [Footnote 2: Not _parts_, but _directions_.]

    [Footnote 3: Cf. Sec. 210.]

_289._ HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE[4]

Tarquinius Superbus, septimus et ultimus rex Romanorum, ubi in exsilium
ab iratis Romanis eiectus est, a Porsena, rege Etruscorum, auxilium
petiit. Mox Porsena magnis cum copiis Romam venit, et ipsa urbs summo in
periculo erat. Omnibus in partibus exercitus Romanus victus erat. Iam
rex montem Ianiculum[5] occupaverat. Numquam antea Romani tanto metu
tenebantur. Ex agris in urbem properabant et summo studio urbem ipsam
muniebant.

    [Footnote 4: The story of Horatius has been made familiar by
    Macaulay's well-known poem "Horatius" in his _Lays of Ancient Rome_.
    Read the poem in connection with this selection.]

    [Footnote 5: The Janiculum is a high hill across the Tiber from
    Rome.]


LESSON LI

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS _HIC_, _ISTE_, _ILLE_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /hic, haec, hoc\, demonstrative pronoun, _this_ (of mine);
    _he, she, it_
  /ille, illa, illud\, demonstrative pronoun _that_ (yonder);
    _he, she, it_
  /invi:sus, -a, -um\, _hateful, detested_, with dative Cf. Sec. 143
  /iste, ista, istud\, demonstrative pronoun, _that_ (of yours);
    _he, she, it_
  /li:berta:s, -a:tis\, f., _liberty_
  /modus, -i:\, m., _measure; manner, way, mode_
  /no:men, no:minis\, n., _name_ (nominate)
  /oculus, -i:\, m., _eye_ (oculist)
  /pri:stinus, -a, -um\, _former, old-time_ (pristine)
  /pu:blicus, -a, -um\, _public, belonging to the state;_
    /re:s pu:blica, rei: pu:blicae\, f., _the commonwealth, the state,
    the republic_
  /vesti:gium, vesti:'gi:\, n., _footprint, track; trace, vestige_
  /vo:x, vo:cis\, f., _voice_

_290._ We have already learned the declension of the demonstrative
pronoun /is\ and its use. (Cf. Lesson XVII.) That pronoun refers to
persons or things either far or near, and makes no definite reference to
place or time. If we wish to point out an object definitely in place or
time, we must use /hic\, /iste\, or /ille\. These demonstratives, like
/is\, are used both as pronouns and as adjectives, and their relation to
the speaker may be represented graphically thus:

             hic            iste          ille
  SPEAKER ------------->-------------->--------------->
          _this_, _he_;  _that_, _he_;  _that_, _he_
            (near);       (remote);     (more remote)

    _a._ In dialogue /hic\ refers to a person or thing near the speaker;
    /iste\, to a person or thing near the person addressed; /ille\, to a
    person or thing remote from both. These distinctions are illustrated
    in the model sentences, Sec. 293, which should be carefully studied
    and imitated.

_291._ /Hic\ is declined as follows:

         SINGULAR
        MASC.    FEM.     NEUT.
  Nom.  hic      haec     hoc
  Gen.  huius    huius    huius
  Dat.  huic     huic     huic
  Acc.  hunc     hanc     hoc
  Abl.  ho:c     ha:c     ho:c

        PLURAL
  Nom.  hi:      hae      haec
  Gen.  ho:rum   ha:rum   ho:rum
  Dat.  hi:s     hi:s     hi:s
  Acc.  ho:s     ha:s     haec
  Abl.  hi:s     hi:s     hi:s

    _a._ /Huius\ is pronounced _h[oo]'y[oo]s_, and /huic\ is pronounced
    _h[oo]ic_ (one syllable).

_292._ The demonstrative pronouns /iste\, /ista\, /istud\, and /ille\,
/illa\, /illud\, except for the nominative and accusative singular
neuter forms /istud\ and /illud\, are declined exactly like /ipse\,
/ipsa\, /ipsum\. (See Sec. 481.)

_293._ MODEL SENTENCES

  _Is this horse_ (of mine) _strong?_
    Estne hic equus validus?

  _That horse_ (of yours) _is strong, but that one_ (yonder) _is weak_
    Iste equus est validus, sed ille est infirmus

  _Are these_ (men by me) _your friends?_
    Suntne hi amici tui?

  _Those_ (men by you) _are my friends,
      but those_ (men yonder) _are enemies_
    Isti sunt amici mei, sed illi sunt inimici

_294._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. _A German Chieftain addresses his Followers._ Ille fortis Germanorum
dux suos convocavit et hoc modo animos eorum confirmavit. "Vos, qui in
his finibus vivitis, in hunc locum convocavi[1] quia mecum debetis istos
agros et istas domos ab iniuriis Romanorum liberare. Hoc nobis non
difficile erit, quod illi hostes has silvas densas, feras saevas quarum
vestigia vident, montes altos timent. Si fortes erimus, dei ipsi nobis
viam salutis demonstrabunt. Ille sol, isti oculi calamitates nostras
viderunt.[1] Itaque nomen illius rei publicae Romanae non solum nobis,
sed etiam omnibus hominibus qui libertatem amant, est invisum. Ad arma
vos voco. Exercete istam pristinam virtutem et vincetis."

    [Footnote 1: The perfect definite. (Cf. Sec. 190.)]

II. 1. Does that bird (of yours)[2] sing? 2. This bird (of mine)[2]
sings both[3] in summer and in winter and has a beautiful voice.
3. Those birds (yonder)[2] in the country don't sing in winter.
4. Snatch a spear from the hands of that soldier (near you)[2] and come
home with me. 5. With those very eyes (of yours)[2] you will see the
tracks of the hateful enemy who burned my dwelling and made an attack on
my brother. 6. For (propter) these deeds (res) we ought to inflict
punishment on him without delay. 7. The enemies of the republic do not
always suffer punishment.

    [Footnote 2: English words in parentheses are not to be translated.
    They are inserted to show what demonstratives should be used.
    (Cf. Sec. 290.)]

    [Footnote 3: _both ... and_, /et ... et\.]

  [Illustration: HORATIUS PONTEM DEFENDIT]

_295._ HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Continued_)

Altera urbis pars muris, altera flumine satis muniri videbatur. Sed erat
pons in flumine qui hostibus iter paene dedit. Tum Horatius Cocles,
fortis vir, magna voce dixit, "Rescindite pontem, Romani! Brevi tempore
Porsena in urbem copias suas traducet." Iam hostes in ponte erant, sed
Horatius cum duobus (cf. Sec. 479) comitibus ad extremam pontis partem
properavit, et hi soli aciem hostium sustinuerunt. Tum vero cives Romani
pontem a tergo rescindere incipiunt, et hostes frustra Horatium superare
temptant.


LESSON LII

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /incolumis, -e\, _unharmed_
  /ne: ... quidem\, adv., _not even_. The emphatic word stands between
    /ne:\ and /quidem\
  /nisi\, conj., _unless, if ... not_
  /paene\, adv., _almost_ (pen-insula)
  /satis\, adv., _enough, sufficiently_ (satisfaction)
  /tantus, -a, -um\, _so great_
  /ve:ro:\, adv., _truly, indeed, in fact_. As a conj. _but, however_,
    usually stands second, never first.

  /de:cido:, de:cidere, de:cidi:, ----\, _fall down_ (deciduous)
  /de:silio:, de:sili:re, de:silui:, de:sultus\, _leap down, dismount_
  /maneo:, mane:re, ma:nsi:, ma:nsu:rus\, _remain_
  /tra:du:co:, tra:du:cere, tra:du:xi:, tra:ductus\, _lead across_

_296._ The indefinite pronouns are used to refer to _some person_ or
_some thing_, without indicating which particular one is meant. The
pronouns /quis\ and /qui\, which we have learned in their interrogative
and relative uses, may also be indefinite; and nearly all the other
indefinite pronouns are compounds of /quis\ or /qui\ and declined almost
like them. Review the declension of these words, Secs. 221, 227.

_297._ Learn the declension and meaning of the following indefinites:

  MASC.     FEM.           NEUT.
       quis                quid, _some one, any one_ (substantive)
  qui:      qua or quae    quod, _some, any_ (adjective), Sec. 483
       aliquis             aliquid, _some one, any one_
                                (substantive), Sec. 487
  aliqui:   aliqua         aliquod, _some, any_ (adjective), Sec. 487
  qui:dam   quaedam        quoddam, quiddam, _a certain,
                                 a certain one_, Sec. 485
       quisquam            quicquam or quidquam (no plural), _any one_
                                (at all) (substantive), Sec. 486
       quisque             quidque, _each one, every one_
                                (substantive), Sec. 484
  quisque   quaeque        quodque, _each, every_ (adjective), Sec. 484

  [Transcriber's Note:
  In the original text, the combined forms (masculine/feminine) were
  printed in the "masculine" column.]

NOTE. The meanings of the neuters, _something_, etc., are easily
inferred from the masculine and feminine.

    _a._ In the masculine and neuter singular of the indefinites,
    quis-forms and quid-forms are mostly used as substantives,
    qui-forms and quod-forms as adjectives.

    _b._ The indefinites /quis\ and /qui\ never stand first in a clause,
    and are rare excepting after /si\, /nisi\, /ne:\, /num\ (as, si
    quis, _if any one_; si quid, _if anything_; nisi quis, _unless
    some one_). Generally /aliquis\ and /aliqui\ are used instead.

    _c._ The forms /qua\ and /aliqua\ are both feminine nominative
    singular and neuter nominative plural of the indefinite adjectives
    /qui\ and /aliqui\ respectively. How do these differ from the
    corresponding forms of the relative /qui\?

    _d._ Observe that /qui:dam\ (qui: + -dam) is declined like /qui:\,
    except that in the accusative singular and genitive plural /m\ of
    /qui:\ becomes /n\ (cf. Sec. 287.a): /quendam\, /quandam\,
    /quorundam\, /quarundam\; also that the neuter has /quiddam\
    (substantive) and /quoddam\ (adjective) in the nominative and
    accusative singular. /Qui:dam\ is the least indefinite of the
    indefinite pronouns, and implies that you could name the person or
    thing referred to if you cared to do so.

    _e._ /Quisquam\ and /quisque\ (substantive) are declined like
    /quis\.

    _f._ /Quisquam\, _any one_ (quicquam or quidquam, _anything_),
    is always used substantively and chiefly in negative sentences. The
    corresponding adjective _any_ is /u:llus, -a, -um\ (Sec. 108).

_298._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. 1. Aliquis de ponte in flumen decidit sed sine ullo periculo servatus
est. 2. Est vero in vita cuiusque hominis aliqua bona fortuna. 3. Ne
militum quidem[1] quisquam in castris mansit. 4. Si quem meae domi
vides, iube eum discedere. 5. Si quis pontem tenet, ne tantus quidem
exercitus capere urbem potest. 6. Urbs non satis munita erat et meridie
rex quidam paene copias suas trans pontem traduxerat. 7. Denique miles
quidam armatus in fluctus desiluit et incolumis ad alteram ripam oculos
vertit. 8. Quisque illi forti militi aliquid dare debet. 9. Tanta vero
virtus Romanus semper placuit. 10. Olim Corinthus erat urbs satis magna
et paene par Romae ipsi; nunc vero moenia deciderunt et pauca vestigia
urbis illius reperiri possunt. 11. Quisque libertatem amat, et aliquibus
vero nomen regis est invisum.

II. 1. If you see a certain Cornelius at Corinth, send him to me.
2. Almost all the soldiers who fell down into the waves were unharmed.
3. Not even at Pompeii did I see so great a fire. 4. I myself was eager
to tell something to some one. 5. Each one was praising his own work.
6. Did you see some one in the country? I did not see any one. 7. Unless
some one will remain on the bridge with Horatius, the commonwealth will
be in the greatest danger.

    [Footnote 1: Observe that /qui:dam\ and /quidem\ are different
    words.]

_299._ HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Concluded_)

Mox, ubi parva pars pontis mansit, Horatius iussit comites discedere et
solus mira constantia impetum illius totius exercitus sustinebat.
Denique magno fragore pons in flumen decidit. Tum vero Horatius tergum
vertit et armatus in aquas desiluit. In eum hostes multa tela iecerunt;
incolumis autem per fiuctus ad alteram ripam tranavit. Ei propter tantas
res gestas populus Romanus non solum alia magna praemia dedit sed etiam
statuam Horati in loco publico posuit.

       *       *       *       *       *

  Sixth Review, Lessons XLV-LII, Secs. 521-523

       *       *       *       *       *

LESSON LIII

REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /aquila, -ae\, f., _eagle_ (aquiline)
  /auda:x\, gen. /auda:cis\, adj., _bold, audacious_
  /celer, celeris, celere\, _swift, quick_ (celerity).  Cf. /ve:lo:x\
  /explo:rato:r, -o:ris\, m., _scout, spy_ (explorer)
  /inge:ns\, gen. /ingentis\, adj., _huge, vast_
  /medius, -a., -um\, _middle, middle part of_ (medium)
  /me:ns, mentis (-ium)\, f., _mind_ (mental). Cf. /animus\
  /opportu:nus, -a, -um\, _opportune_
  /quam\, adv., _than_. With the superlative /quam\ gives the force of
    _as possible_, as /quam auda:cissimi: viri:\, _men as bold as
    possible_
  /recens\, gen. /recentis\, adj., _recent_
  /tam\, adv., _so_. Always with an adjective or adverb, while /ita\ is
    generally used with a verb

  /quaero:, quaerere, quaesi:vi:, quaesi:tus\, _ask, inquire, seek_
    (question). Cf. /peto:\

_300._ The quality denoted by an adjective may exist in either a higher
or a lower degree, and this is expressed by a form of inflection called
comparison. The mere presence of the quality is expressed by the
positive degree, its presence in a higher or lower degree by the
comparative, and in the highest or lowest of all by the superlative. In
English the usual way of comparing an adjective is by using the suffix
_-er_ for the comparative and _-est_ for the superlative; as, positive
_high_, comparative _higher_, superlative _highest_. Less frequently we
use the adverbs _more_ and _most_; as, positive _beautiful_, comparative
_more beautiful_, superlative _most beautiful._

In Latin, as in English, adjectives are compared by adding suffixes or
by using adverbs.

_301._ Adjectives are compared by using suffixes as follows:

  POSITIVE          COMPARATIVE          SUPERLATIVE
  cla:rus, -a, -um   cla:rior, cla:ri:us     cla:rissimus, -a, -um
    (_bright_)        (_brighter_)         (_brightest_)
    (BASE cla:r-)
  brevis, breve     brevior, brevius     brevissimus, -a, -um
    (_short_)         (_shorter_)          (_shortest_)
    (BASE brev-)
  ve:lo:x             ve:lo:cior, ve:lo:cius   ve:lo:cissimus, -a, -um
    (_swift_)         (_swifter_)          (_swiftest_)
    (BASE veloc-)

    _a._ The comparative is formed from the base of the positive by
    adding -ior masc. and fem., and -ius neut.; the superlative by
    adding /-issimus, -issima, -issimum\.

_302._ Less frequently adjectives are compared by using the adverbs
/magis\, _more_; /maxime:\, _most_; as, /ido:neus\, _suitable_; /magis
ido:neus\, _more suitable_; /maxime: ido:neus\, _most suitable._

_303._ Declension of the Comparative. Adjectives of the comparative
degree are declined as follows:

        SINGULAR                       PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.          MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.
  Nom.  cla:rior        cla:ri:us      cla:ri:o:re:s   cla:rio:ra
  Gen.  cla:rio:ris     cla:rio:ris    cla:rio:rum     cla:rio:rum
  Dat.  cla:rio:ri:     cla:rio:ri:    cla:rio:ribus   cla:rio:ribus
  Acc.  cla:rio:rem     cla:rius       cla:rio:re:s    cla:rio:ra
  Abl.  cla:rio:re      cla:rio:re     cla:rio:ribus   cla:rio:ribus

    _a._ Observe that the endings are those of the consonant stems of
    the third declension.

    _b._ Compare /longus\, _long_; /fortis\, _brave_; /recens\ (base,
    recent-), _recent_; and decline the comparative of each.

_304._ Adjectives in -er form the comparative regularly, but the
superlative is formed by adding -rimus, -a, -um to the nominative
masculine of the positive; as,

  POSITIVE                    COMPARATIVE           SUPERLATIVE
  a:cer, a:cris, a:cre        a:crior, a:crius      a:cerrimus, -a, -um
    (BASE acr-)
  pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum  pulchrior, pulchrius  pulcherrimus,
    (BASE pulchr-)                                    -a, -um
  li:ber, li:bera, li:berum   li:berior, li:berius  li:berrimus, -a, -um
    (BASE li:ber-)

    _a._ In a similar manner compare /miser\, /aeger\, /creber\.

_305._ The comparative is often translated by _quite, too_, or
_somewhat_, and the superlative by _very_; as, /altior\, _quite_ (_too,
somewhat_) _high_; /altissimus\, _very high._

_306._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Quid exploratores quaerebant? Exploratores tempus opportfuissimum
itineri quaerebant. 2. Media in silva ignis quam creberrimos fecimus,
quod feras tam audacis numquam antea videramus. 3. Antiquis temporibus
Germani erant fortiores quam Galli. 4. Caesar erat clarior quam
inimici[1] qui eum necaverunt. 5. Quisque scutum ingens et pilum longius
gerebat. 6. Apud barbaros Germani erant audacissimi et fortissimi.
7. Mens hominum est celerior quam corpus. 8. Viri aliquarum terrarum
sunt miserrimi. 9. Corpora Germanorum erant ingentiora quam Romanorum.
10. Acerrimi Gallorum principes sine ulla mora trans flumen quoddam
equos velocissimos traduxerunt. 11. Aestate dies sunt longiores quam
hieme. 12. Imperator quidam ab exploratoribus de recenti adventu navium
longarum quaesivit.

II. 1. Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest. 2. Certain animals are
swifter than the swiftest horse. 3. The Roman name was most hateful to
the enemies of the commonwealth. 4. The Romans always inflicted the
severest[2] punishment on faithless allies. 5. I was quite ill, and so I
hastened from the city to the country. 6. Marcus had some friends dearer
than Caesar.[3] 7. Did you not seek a more recent report concerning the
battle? 8. Not even after a victory so opportune did he seek the
general's friendship.

    [Footnote 1: Why is this word used instead of /hostes\?]

    [Footnote 2: Use the superlative of /gravis\.]

    [Footnote 3: Accusative. In a comparison the noun after /quam\ is in
    the same case as the one before it.]

N.B. Beginning at this point, the selections for reading will be found
near the end of the volume. (See p. 197.)


LESSON LIV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
THE ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES WITHOUT _QUAM_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /alacer, alacris, alacre\, _eager, spirited, excited_ (alacrity)
  /celerita:s, -a:tis\, f., _speed_ (celerity)
  /cla:mor, cla:mo:ris\, m., _shout, clamor_
  /le:nis, le:ne\, _mild, gentle_ (lenient)
  /mulier, muli'eris\, f., _woman_
  /multitu:do:, multitu:dinis\, f., _multitude_
  /ne:mo\, dat. /ne:mini:\, acc. /ne:minem\ (gen. /nu:lli:us\, abl.
    /nu:llo:\, from /nu:llus\), no plur., m. and f., _no one_
  /no:bilis, no:bile\, _well known, noble_
  /noctu:\, adv. (an old abl.), _by night_ (nocturnal)
  /statim\, adv., _immediately, at once_
  /subito:\, adv., _suddenly_
  /tardus, -a, -um\, _slow_ (tardy)
  /cupio:, cupere, cupi:vi:, cupi:tus\, _desire, wish_ (cupidity)

_307._ The following six adjectives in -lis form the comparative
regularly; but the superlative is formed by adding -limus to the base
of the positive. Learn the meanings and comparison.

  POSITIVE                   COMPARATIVE         SUPERLATIVE
  facilis, -e, _easy_        facilior, -ius      facillimus, -a, -um
  difficilis, -e, _hard_     difficilior, -ius   difficillimus, -a, -um
  similis, -e, _like_        similior, -ius      simillimus, -a, -um
  dissimilis, -e, _unlike_   dissimilior, -ius   dissimillimus, -a, -um
  gracilis, -e, _slender_    gracilior, -ius     gracillimus, -a, -um
  humilis, -e, _low_         humilior, -ius      humillimus, -a, -um

_308._ From the knowledge gained in the preceding lesson we should
translate the sentence _Nothing is brighter than the sun_

  Nihil est clarius quam sol

But the Romans, especially in negative sentences, often expressed the
comparison in this way,

  Nihil est clarius sole

which, literally translated, is _Nothing is brighter away from the sun_;
that is, _starting from the sun as a standard, nothing is brighter_.
This relation is expressed by the separative ablative /sole\. Hence the
rule

_309._ RULE. Ablative with Comparatives. _The comparative degree, if
/quam\ is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative._

_310._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Nemo milites alacriores Romanis vidit. 2. Statim imperator iussit
nuntios quam celerrimos litteras Romam portare. 3. Multa flumina sunt
leniora Rheno. 4. Apud Romanos quis erat clarior Caesare? 5. Nihil
pulchrius urbe Roma vidi. 6. Subito multitudo audacissima magno clamore
proelium acrius commisit. 7. Num est equus tuus tardus? Non vero tardus,
sed celerior aquila. 8. Ubi Romae fui, nemo erat mihi amicior Sexto.
9. Quaedam mulieres cibum militibus dare cupiverunt. 10. Rex vetuit
civis ex urbe noctu discedere. 11. Ille puer est gracilior hac
muliere. 12. Explorator duas (_two_) vias, alteram facilem, alteram
difficiliorem, demonstravit.

II. 1. What city have you seen more beautiful than Rome? 2. The Gauls
were not more eager than the Germans. 3. The eagle is not slower than
the horse. 4. The spirited woman did not fear to make the journey by
night. 5. The mind of the multitude was quite gentle and friendly.
6. But the king's mind was very different. 7. The king was not like
(similar to) his noble father. 8. These hills are lower than the huge
mountains of our territory.

  [Illustration: ARMA ROMANA]


LESSON LV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Continued_)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /aedificium, aedifi'ci:\, n., _building, dwelling_ (edifice)
  /imperium, impe'ri:\, n., _command, chief power; empire_
  /mors, mortis (-ium)\, f., _death_ (mortal)
  /reliquus, -a, -um\, _remaining, rest of_. As a noun, m. and n. plur.,
    _the rest_ (relic)
  /scelus, sceleris\, n., _crime_
  /servitu:s, -u:tis\, f., _slavery_ (servitude)
  /valle:s, vallis (-ium)\, f., _valley_

  /abdo:, abdere, abdidi:, abditus\, _hide_
  /contendo:, contendere, contendi:, contentus\, _strain, struggle;
    hasten_ (contend)
  /occi:do:, occi:dere, occi:di:, occi:sus\, _cut down, kill_. Cf.
    /neco:\, /interficio:\
  /perterreo:, perterre:re, perterrui:, perterritus\, _terrify,
    frighten_
  /recipio:, recipere, rece:pi:, receptus\, _receive, recover_;
    /se: recipere\, _betake one's self, withdraw, retreat_
  /tra:do:, tra:dere, tra:didi:, tra:ditus\, _give over, surrender,
    deliver_ (traitor)

_311._ Some adjectives in English have irregular comparison, as _good,
better, best_; _many, more, most._ So Latin comparison presents some
irregularities. Among the adjectives that are compared irregularly are

  POSITIVE                     COMPARATIVE        SUPERLATIVE
  bonus, -a, -um, _good_     melior, melius   optimus, -a, -um
  magnus, -a, -um, _great_   maior, maius     maximus, -a, -um
  malus, -a, -um, _bad_      peior, peius     pessimus, -a, -um
  multus, -a, -um, _much_    ----, plu:s       plu:rimus, -a, -um
  multi:, -ae, -a, _many_     plu:re:s, plu:ra    plu:rimi:, -ae, -a
  parvus, -a, -um, _small_   minor, minus     minimus, -a, -um

_312._ The following four adjectives have two superlatives. Unusual
forms are placed in parentheses.

  exterus, -a, -um, (exterior, -ius,    { extre:mus, -a, -um }
    _outward_             _outer_)          {(extimus, -a, -um) }
                                                _outermost, last_
  i:nferus, -a, -um,  i:nferior, -ius,    { i:nfimus, -a, -um  }
    _low_                 _lower_           { i:mus, -a, -um     }
                                                _lowest_
  posterus, -a, -um, (posterior, -ius,  { postre:mus, -a, -um }
    _next_                _later_)          {(postumus, -a, -um) }
                                                _last_
  superus, -a, -um,  superior, -ius     { supre:mus, -a, -um  }
    _above_               _higher_          { summus, -a, -um    }
                                                _highest_

_313._ /Plu:s\, _more_ (plural _more, many, several_), is declined as
follows:

        SINGULAR                  PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.     MASC. AND FEM.   NEUT.
  Nom.       ----       plu:s     plu:re:s         plu:ra
  Gen.       ----       plu:ris   plu:rium         plu:rium
  Dat.       ----       ----      plu:ribus        plu:ribus
  Acc.       ----       plu:s     plu:ri:s, -e:s   plu:ra
  Abl.       ----       plu:re    plu:ribus        plu:ribus

    _a._ In the singular /plu:s\ is used only as a neuter substantive.

_314._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Reliqui hostes, qui a dextro cornu proelium commiserant, de
superiore loco fugerunt et sese in silvam maximam receperunt. 2. In
extrema parte silvae castra hostium posita erant. 3. Plurimi captivi
ab equitibus ad Caesarem ducti sunt. 4. Caesar vero iussit eos in
servitutem tradi. 5. Postero die magna multitudo mulierum ab Romanis
in valle ima reperta est. 6. Hae mulieres maxime perterritae adventu
Caesaris sese occidere studebant. 7. Eae quoque pluris fabulas de
exercitus Romani sceleribus audiverant. 8. Fama illorum militum optima
non erat. 9. In barbarorum aedificiis maior copia frumenti reperta est.
10. Nemo crebris proeliis contendere sine aliquo periculo potest.

II. 1. The remaining women fled from their dwellings and hid themselves.
2. They were terrified and did not wish to be captured and given over
into slavery. 3. Nothing can be worse than slavery. 4. Slavery is worse
than death. 5. In the Roman empire a great many were killed because they
refused to be slaves. 6. To surrender the fatherland is the worst crime.


LESSON LVI

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Concluded_)
ABLATIVE OF THE MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /aditus, -u:s\, m., _approach, access; entrance_
  /ci:vita:s, ci:vita:tis\, f., _citizenship; body of citizens, state_
    (city)
  /inter\, prep, with  acc.,  _between, among_ (interstate commerce)
  /nam\, conj., _for_
  /obses, obsidis\, m. and f., _hostage_
  /paulo:\, adv. (abl. n. of /paulus\), _by a little, somewhat_

  /incolo:, incolere, incolui:, --\, transitive, _inhabit_;
    intransitive, _dwell_. Cf. /habito:\, /vi:vo:\
  /relinquo:, relinquere, reli:qui:, relictus\, _leave, abandon_
    (relinquish)
  /statuo:, statuere, statui:, statu:tus\, _fix, decide_ (statute),
    usually with infin.

_315._ The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the
superlative and have no positive. Forms rarely used are in parentheses.

  COMPARATIVE              SUPERLATIVE
  citerior, _hither_    (citimus, _hithermost_)
  interior, _inner_     (intimus, _inmost_)
  prior, _former_        pri:mus, _first_
  propior, _nearer_      proximus, _next, nearest_
  ulterior, _further_    ultimus, _furthest_

_316._ In the sentence _Galba is a head taller than Sextus_, the phrase
_a head taller_ expresses the /measure of difference\ in height between
Galba and Sextus. The Latin form of expression would be _Galba is taller
than Sextus /by a head\_. This is clearly an ablative relation, and the
construction is called the /ablative of the measure of difference\.

EXAMPLES

  Galba est altior capite quam Sextus
    _Galba is a head taller_ (taller by a head) _than Sextus_.
  Illud iter ad Italiam est multo brevius
    _That route to Italy is much shorter_ (shorter by much)

_317._ RULE. Ablative of the Measure of Difference. _With comparatives
and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure
of difference._

    _a._ Especially common in this construction are the neuter ablatives

  eo:, _by this, by that_         nihilo:,[1] _by nothing_
  ho:c, _by this_                 paulo:, _by a little_
  multo:, _by much_

    [Footnote 1: /nihil\ was originally /nihilum\ and declined like
    /pilum\. There is no plural.]

_318._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Barbari proelium committere statuerunt eo magis quod Romani
infirmi esse videbantur. 2. Meum consilium est multo melius quam tuum
quia multo facilius est. 3. Haec via est multo latior quam illa.
4. Barbari erant nihilo tardiores quam Romani. 5. Tuus equus est paulo
celerior quam meus. 6. Ii qui paulo fortiores erant prohibuerunt
reliquos aditum relinquere. 7. Inter illas civitates Germania milites
habet optimos. 8. Propior via quae per hanc vallem ducit est inter
portum et lacum. 9. Servi, qui agros citeriores incolebant, priores
dominos relinquere non cupiverunt, quod eos amabant. 10. Ultimae
Germaniae partes numquam in fidem Romanorum venerunt. 11. Nam trans
Rhenum aditus erat multo difficilior exercitui Romano.

II. 1. Another way much more difficult (more difficult by much) was left
through hither Gaul. 2. In ancient times no state was stronger than the
Roman empire. 3. The states of further Gaul did not wish to give
hostages to Caesar. 4. Slavery is no better (better by nothing) than
death. 5. The best citizens are not loved by the worst. 6. The active
enemy immediately withdrew into the nearest forest, for they were
terrified by Caesar's recent victories.


LESSON LVII

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /aequus, -a, -um\, _even, level; equal_
  /cohors, cohortis (-ium)\, f., _cohort_, a tenth part of a legion,
    about 360 men
  /curro:, currere, cucurri:, cursus\, _run_ (course)
  /difficulta:s, -a:tis\, f., _difficulty_
  /fossa, -ae\, f., _ditch_ (fosse)
  /ge:ns, gentis (-ium)\, f., _race, tribe, nation_ (Gentile)
  /nego:tium, nego:ti:\, n., _business, affair, matter_ (negotiate)
  /regio:, -o:nis\, f., _region, district_
  /ru:mor, ru:mo:ris\, m., _rumor, report_. Cf. /fa:ma\
  /simul atque\, conj., _as soon as_

  /suscipio:, suscipere, susce:pi:, susceptus\, _undertake_
  /traho:, trahere, tra:xi:, tra:ctus\, _drag, draw_ (ex-tract)
  /valeo:, vale:re, valui:, valitu:rus\, _be strong_; plu:rimum vale:re,
    _to be most powerful, have great influence_ (value). Cf. validus

_319._ Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English
(e.g. adj. _sweet_, adv. _sweetly_). Like adjectives, they can be
compared; but they have no declension.

_320._ Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second
declensions are formed and compared as follows:

          POSITIVE                COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
  _Adj._  ca:rus, _dear_           ca:rior       ca:rissimus
  _Adv._  ca:re:, _dearly_          ca:rius       ca:rissime:

  _Adj._  pulcher, _beautiful_    pulchrior    pulcherrimus
  _Adv._  pulchre:, _beautifully_  pulchrius    pulcherrime:

  _Adj._  li:ber, _free_           li:berior     li:berrimus
  _Adv._  li:bere:, _freely_        li:berius     li:berrime:

    _a._ The positive of the adverb is formed by adding -e: to the base
    of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is
    formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way.

    _b._ The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular
    of the comparative of the adjective.

_321._ Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are
formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative.
The positive is usually formed by adding -iter to the base of
adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and -ter to the base of
those of one ending;[1] as,

          POSITIVE              COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
  _Adj._  fortis, _brave_       fortior      fortissimus
  _Adv._  fortiter, _bravely_   fortius      fortissime:

  _Adj._  auda:x, _bold_         auda:cior     auda:cissimus
  _Adv._  auda:cter, _boldly_    auda:cius     auda:cissime:

    [Footnote 1: This is a good working rule, though there are some
    exceptions to it.]

_322._ Case Forms as Adverbs. As we learned above, the neuter
accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or
superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation,
use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as,

  _Adj._  facilis, _easy_             pri:mus, _first_
  _Adv._  facile (acc.), _easily_     pri:mum (acc.), _first_
                                      pri:mo: (abl.), _at first_
  _Adj._  multus, _many_              plu:rimus, _most_
  _Adv._  multum (acc.), _much_       plu:rimum (acc.), _most_
          multo: (abl.), _by much_

_323._ Learn the following irregular comparisons:

  bene, _well_           melius, _better_    optime:, _best_
  diu:, _long_ (time)     diu:tius, _longer_   diu:tissime:, _longest_
  magnopere, _greatly_   magis, _more_       maxime:, _most_
  parum, _little_        minus, _less_       minime:, _least_
  prope, _nearly, near_  propius, _nearer_   proxime:, _nearest_
  saepe, _often_         saepius, _oftener_  saepissime:, _oftenest_

_324._ Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular
rules, and compare them: /laetus\, /superbus\, /molestus\, /amicus\,
/acer\, /brevis\, /gravis\, /recens\.

_325._ RULE. Adverbs. _Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs._

_326._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Nulla res melius gesta est quam proelium illud[2] ubi Marius
multo minore exercitu multo maiores copias Germanorum in fugam dedit.
2. Audacter in Romanorum cohortis hostes impetus fecerunt 3. Marius
autem omnes hos fortissime sustinuit. 4. Barbari nihilo fortiores erant
quam Romani. 5. Primo barbari esse superiores videbantur, tum Romani
acrius contenderunt. 6. Denique, ubi iam diutissime paene aequo proelio
pugnatum est, barbari fugam petierunt. 7. Quaedam Germanorum gentes,
simul atque rumorem illius calamitatis audiverunt, sese in ultimis
regionibus finium suorum abdiderunt. 8. Romani saepius quam hostes
vicerunt, quod meliora arma habebant. 9. Inter omnis gentis Romani
plurimum valebant. 10. Hae cohortes simul atque in aequiorem regionem
se receperunt, castra sine ulla difficultate posuerunt.

II. 1. Some nations are easily overcome by their enemies. 2. Germany is
much larger than Gaul. 3. Were not the Romans the most powerful among
the tribes of Italy? 4. On account of (his) wounds the soldier dragged
his body from the ditch with the greatest difficulty. 5. He was able
neither to run nor to fight. 6. Who saved him? A certain horseman boldly
undertook the matter. 7. The rumors concerning the soldier's death were
not true.

    [Footnote 2: /ille\ standing after its noun means _that well-known,
    that famous_.]


LESSON LVIII

NUMERALS : THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /commea:tus, -u:s\, m.. _provisions_
  /la:titu:do:, -inis\, f., _width_ (latitude)
  /longitu:do:, -inis\, f., _length_ (longitude)
  /magnitu:do:, -inis\, f., _size, magnitude_
  /merca:tor, merca:to:ris\, m., _trader, merchant_
  /mu:ni:tio:, -o:nis\, f., _fortification_ (munition)
  /spatium, spati:\, n., _room, space, distance; time_

  /cogno:sco:, cogno:scere, cogno:vi:, cognitus\, _learn_;
    in the perfect tenses, _know_ (re-cognize)
  /co:go:, co:gere, coe:gi:, coa:ctus\, _collect; compel_ (cogent)
  /de:fendo:, de:fendere, de:fendi:, de:fe:nsus\, _defend_
  /incendo:, incendere, incendi:, ince:nsus\, _set fire to, burn_
    (incendiary). Cf. /cremo:\
  /obtineo:, obtine:re, obtinui:, obtentus\, _possess, occupy, hold_
    (obtain)
  /pervenio:, perveni:re, perve:ni:, perventus\, _come through, arrive_

_327._ The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows:

  1. /Cardinal Numerals\, answering the question _how many?_ as,
  /u:nus\, _one_; /duo\, _two_; etc.

  2. /Ordinal Numerals\, derived in most cases from the cardinals and
  answering the question _in what order?_ as, /pri:mus\, _first_;
  /secundus\, _second_; etc.

  3. /Distributive Numerals\, answering the question _how many at a
  time?_ as, /singuli:\, _one at a time_.

_328._ The Cardinal Numerals. The first twenty of the cardinals are as
follows:

  1, u:nus       6, sex      11, u:ndecim        16, se:decim
  2, duo        7, septem   12, duodecim       17, septendecim
  3, tre:s       8, octo:     13, tredecim       18, duode:vi:ginti:
  4, quattuor   9, novem    14, quattuordecim  19, u:nde:vi:ginti:
  5, qui:nque   10, decem    15, qui:ndecim      20, vi:ginti:

    _a._ Learn also /centum\ = 100, /ducenti:\ = 200, /mi:lle\ = 1000.

_329._ Declension of the Cardinals. Of the cardinals only /u:nus\,
/duo\, /tre:s\, the hundreds above one hundred, and /mi:lle\ used as a
noun, are declinable.

    _a._ /u:nus\ is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is
    declined like /nu:llus\ (cf. Secs. 109, 470). The plural of /u:nus\
    is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, /u:na
    castra\, _one camp_; and with other nouns in the sense of _only_,
    as, /Galli u:ni\, _only the Gauls_.

    _b._ Learn the declension of /duo\, _two_; /tre:s\, _three_; and
    /mi:lle\, _a thousand_. (Sec. 479.)

    _c._ The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of
    /bonus\; as,

      ducenti:,    -ae,    -a
      ducento:rum, -a:rum, -o:rum
        etc.         etc.    etc.

_330._ We have already become familiar with sentences like the
following:

  Omnium avium aquila est velocissima
    _Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest_
  Hoc oraculum erat omnium clarissimum
    _This oracle was the most famous of all_

In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it
modifies denotes a part of that whole. Such a genitive, denoting the
whole of which a part is taken, is called a /partitive genitive\.

_331._ RULE. Partitive Genitive. _Words denoting a part are often used
with the genitive of the whole, known as the /partitive genitive\._

    _a._ Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and
    other adjectives. But cardinal numbers excepting /mille\ regularly
    take the ablative with /ex\ or /de\ instead of the partitive
    genitive.

    _b._ /Mille\, _a thousand_, in the singular is usually an
    indeclinable adjective (as, /mille milites\, _a thousand soldiers_),
    but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive
    genitive (as, /decem milia militum\, _ten thousand soldiers_).

EXAMPLES:

  Fortissimi horum sunt Germani
    _The bravest of these are the Germans_
  Decem milia hostium interfecta sunt
    _Ten thousand_ (lit. _thousands_) _of the enemy were slain_
  Una ex captivis erat soror regis
    _One of the captives was the king's sister_

_332._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Caesar maximam partem aedificiorum incendit. 2. Magna pars
munitionis aqua fluminis deleta est. 3. Galli huius regionis quinque
milia hominum coegerant. 4. Duo ex meis fratribus eundem rumorem
audiverunt. 5. Quis Romanorum erat clarior Caesare? 6. Quinque cohortes
ex illa legione castra quam fortissime defendebant. 7. Hic locus aberat
aequo spatio[1] ab castris Caesaris et castris Germanorum. 8. Caesar
simul atque pervenit, plus commeatus ab sociis postulavit. 9. Nonne
mercatores magnitudinem insulae cognoverant? Longitudinem sed non
latitudinem cognoverant. 10. Pauci hostium obtinebant collem quem
exploratores nostri viderunt.

II. 1. I have two brothers, and one of them lives at Rome. 2. Caesar
stormed that very town with three legions. 3. In one hour he destroyed a
great part of the fortification. 4. When the enemy could no longer[2]
defend the gates, they retreated to a hill which was not far distant.[3]
5. There three thousand of them bravely resisted the Romans.[4]

    [Footnote 1: Ablative of the measure of difference.]

    [Footnote 2: Not /longius\. Why?]

    [Footnote 3: Latin, _was distant by a small space._]

    [Footnote 4: Not the accusative.]


LESSON LIX

NUMERALS (_Continued_) : THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /agmen, agminis\, n., _line of march, column_;
    /pri:mum agmen\, _the van_;
    /novissimum agmen\, _the rear_
  /atque\, /ac\, conj., _and_; /atque\ is used before vowels and
    consonants, /ac\ before consonants only. Cf. /et\ and /-que\
  /concilium, conci'li:\, n., _council, assembly_
  /Helve:tii:, -o:rum\, m., _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe
  /passus, passu:s\, m., _a pace_, five Roman feet;
    /mi:lle passuum\, _a thousand (of) paces_, a Roman mile
  /qua: de: causa:\, _for this reason, for what reason_
  /va:llum, -i:\, n., _earth-works, rampart_

  /cado:, cadere, cecidi:, ca:su:rus\, _fall_ (decadence)
  /de:do:, de:dere, de:didi:, de:ditus\, _surrender, give up_;
    with a reflexive pronoun, _surrender one's self, submit_, with the
    dative of the indirect object
  /premo:, premere, pressi:, pressus\, _press hard, harass_
  /vexo:, vexa:re, vexa:vi:, vexa:tus\, _annoy, ravage_ (vex)

_333._ Learn the first twenty of the ordinal numerals (Sec. 478). The
ordinals are all declined like /bonus\.

_334._ The distributive numerals are declined like the plural of
/bonus\. The first three are

    singuli:, -ae, -a, _one each, one by one_
    bi:ni:, -ae, -a, _two each, two by two_
    terni:, -ae, -a, _three each, three by three_

_335._ We have learned that, besides its use as object, the accusative
is used to express space relations not covered by the ablative. We have
had such expressions as /per plurimos annos\, _for a great many years_;
/per totum diem\, _for a whole day_. Here the space relation is one of
_extent of time_. We could also say /per decem pedes\, _for ten feet_,
where the space relation is one of _extent of space_. While this is
correct Latin, the usual form is to use the accusative with no
preposition, as,

  Vir totum diem cucurrit, _the man ran for a whole day_
  Caesar murum decem pedes movit, _Caesar moved the wall ten feet_

_336._ RULE. Accusative of Extent. _Duration of time and extent of
space are expressed by the accusative._

    _a._ This accusative answers the questions _how long? how far?_

    _b._ Distinguish carefully between the accusative of time _how long_
    and the ablative of time _when_, or _within which._

Select the accusatives of time and space and the ablatives of time in
the following:

When did the general arrive? He arrived at two o'clock. How long had
he been marching? For four days. How far did he march? He marched
sixty-five miles. Where has he pitched his camp? Three miles from the
river, and he will remain there several days. The wall around the camp
is ten feet high. When did the war begin? In the first year after the
king's death.

_337._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298.

I. _Caesar in Gaul_. Caesar bellum in Gallia septem annos gessit. Primo
anno Helvetios vicit, et eodem anno multae Germanorum gentes ei sese
dediderunt. Multos iam annos Germani Gallos vexabant[1] et duces Germani
copias suas trans Rhenum saepe traducebant.[1] Non singuli veniebant,
sed multa milia hominum in Galliam contendebant. Qua de causa principes
Galliae concilium convocaverunt atque statuerunt legates ad Caesarem
mittere. Caesar, simul atque hunc rumorem audivit, copias suas sine mora
coegit. Prima luce fortiter cum Germanis proelium commisit. Totum diem
acriter pugnatum est. Caesar ipse a dextro cornu acicm duxit. Magna pars
exercitus Germani cecidit. Post magnam caedem pauci multa milia passuum
ad flumen fugerunt.

II. 1. Caesar pitched camp two miles from the river. 2. He fortified the
camp with a ditch fifteen feet wide and a rampart nine feet high. 3. The
camp of the enemy was a great way off (was distant by a great space).
4. On the next day he hastened ten miles in three hours. 5. Suddenly the
enemy with all their forces made an attack upon (/in\ _with acc._) the
rear. 6. For two hours the Romans were hard pressed by the barbarians.
7. In three hours the barbarians were fleeing.

    [Footnote 1: Translate as if pluperfect.]


LESSON LX

DEPONENT VERBS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  /aut\, conj., _or_; /aut ... aut\, _either ... or_
  /causa:\, abl. of /causa\, _for the sake of, because of_. Always
    stands _after_ the gen. which modifies it
  /fere:\, adv., _nearly, almost_
  /opi:nio:, -o:nis\, f., _opinion, supposition, expectation_
  /re:s fru:menta:ria, rei: fru:menta:riae\, f. (lit. _the grain
    affair_), _grain supply_
  /timor, -o:ris\, m., _fear_. Cf. /timeo:\
  /undique\, adv., _from all sides_

  /co:nor, co:na:ri:, co:na:tus sum\, _attempt, try_
  /e:gredior, e:gredi:, e:gressus sum\, _move out, disembark_;
    /pro:gredior\, _move forward, advance_ (egress, progress)
  /moror, mora:ri:, mora:tus sum\, _delay_
  /orior, oriri:, ortus sum\, _arise, spring; begin; be born_ (_from_)
    (origin)
  /profici:scor, profici:sci:, profectus sum\, _set out_
  /revertor, reverti:, reversus sum\, _return_ (revert). The forms of
    this verb are usually active, and not deponent, in the perfect
    system. Perf. act., /reverti:\
  /sequor, sequi:, secu:tus sum\, _follow_ (sequence). Note the
    following compounds of /sequor\ and the force of the different
    prefixes:
    /co:nsequor\ (_follow with_), _overtake_;
    /i:nsequor\ (_follow against_), _pursue_;
    /subsequor\ (_follow under_), _follow close after_

_338._ A number of verbs are passive in form but active in meaning; as,
/hortor\, _I encourage_; /vereor\, _I fear_. Such verbs are called
/deponent\ because they have laid aside (/de-ponere\, _to lay aside_)
the active forms.

    _a._ Besides having all the forms of the passive, deponent verbs
    have also the future active infinitive and a few other active forms
    which will be noted later. (SecSecs. 375, 403.b.)

_339._ The principal parts of deponents are of course passive in form,
as,

  Conj. I         hortor, hortari:, hortatus sum, _encourage_
  Conj. II        vereor, vere:ri:, veritus sum, _fear_
  Conj. III (_a_) sequor, sequi:, secu:tus sum, _follow_
            (_b_) patior, pati:, passus sum, _suffer, allow_
  Conj. IV        partior, parti:ri:, parti:tus sum, _share, divide_

Learn the synopses of these verbs. (See Sec. 493.) /Patior\ is
conjugated like the passive of /capio\ (Sec. 492).

_340._ PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE

The prepositions with the accusative that occur most frequently are

  ante, _before_
  apud, _among_
  circum, _around_
  contra:, _against, contrary to_
  extra:, _outside of_
  in, _into, in, against, upon_
  inter, _between, among_
  intra:, _within_
  ob, _on account of_ (quam ob rem, _wherefore, therefore_)
  per, _through, by means of_
  post, _after, behind_
  propter, _on account of, because of_
  tra:ns, _across, over_

    _a._ Most of these you have had before. Review the old ones and
    learn the new ones. Review the list of prepositions governing the
    ablative, Sec. 209.

_341._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298.

I. 1. Tres ex legatis, contra Caesaris opinionem, iter facere per
hostium finis verebantur. 2. Quis eos hortatus est? Imperator eos
hortatus est et iis persuadere conatus est, sed non potuit. 3. Quid
legatos perterruit? Aut timor hostium, qui undique premebant, aut
longitudo viae eos perterruit. 4. Tamen omnes fere Caesarem multo magis
quam hostis veriti sunt. 5. Fortissimae gentes Galliae ex Germanis
oriebantur. 6. Quam ob rem tam fortes erant? Quia nec vinum nec
alia quae virtutem delent ad se portari patiebantur. 7. Caesar ex
mercatoribus de insula Britannia quaesivit, sed nihil cognoscere potuit.
8. Itaque ipse statuit hanc terram petere, et media fere aestate cum
multis navibus longis profectus est. 9. Magna celeritate iter confecit
et in opportunissimo loco egressus est. 10. Barbari summis viribus eum
ab insula prohibere conati sunt. 11. Ille autem barbaros multa milia
passuum insecutus est; tamen sine equitatu eos consequi non potuit.

II. 1. Contrary to our expectation, the enemy fled and the cavalry
followed close after them. 2. From all parts of the multitude the shouts
arose of those who were being wounded. 3. Caesar did not allow the
cavalry to pursue too far.[1] 4. The cavalry set out at the first hour
and was returning[2] to camp at the fourth hour. 5. Around the Roman
camp was a rampart twelve feet high. 6. Caesar will delay three days
because of the grain supply. 7. Nearly all the lieutenants feared the
enemy and attempted to delay the march.

    [Footnote 1: Comparative of /longe\.]

    [Footnote 2: Will this be a deponent or an active form?]

       *       *       *       *       *

  Seventh Review, Lessons LIII-LX, Secs. 524-526

       *       *       *       *       *

  [Illustration]




PART III

CONSTRUCTIONS


INTRODUCTORY NOTE

The preceding part of this book has been concerned chiefly with forms
and vocabulary. There remain still to be learned the forms of the
Subjunctive Mood, the Participles, and the Gerund of the regular verb,
and the conjugation of the commoner irregular verbs. These will be taken
up in connection with the study of constructions, which will be the
chief subject of our future work. The special vocabularies of the
preceding lessons contain, exclusive of proper names, about six hundred
words. As these are among the commonest words in the language, _they
must be mastered_. They properly form the basis of the study of words,
and will be reviewed and used with but few additions in the remaining
lessons.

For practice in reading and to illustrate the constructions presented, a
continued story has been prepared and may be begun at this point (see p.
204). It has been divided into chapters of convenient length to
accompany progress through the lessons, but may be read with equal
profit after the lessons are finished. The story gives an account of the
life and adventures of Publius Cornelius Lentulus, a Roman boy, who
fought in Caesar's campaigns and shared in his triumph. The colored
plates illustrating the story are faithful representations of ancient
life and are deserving of careful study.


LESSON LXI

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

_342._ In addition to the indicative, imperative, and infinitive moods,
which you have learned, Latin has a fourth mood called the subjunctive.
The tenses of the subjunctive are

  PRESENT    }
  IMPERFECT  }  ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
  PERFECT    }
  PLUPERFECT }

_343._ The tenses of the subjunctive have the same time values as the
corresponding tenses of the indicative, and, in addition, _each of them
may refer to future time_. No meanings of the tenses will be given in
the paradigms, as the translation varies with the construction used.

_344._ The present subjunctive is inflected as follows:

     CONJ. I    CONJ. II      CONJ. III                  CONJ. IV
     ACTIVE VOICE
     SINGULAR
  1. a'mem      mo'neam       re'gam       ca'piam       au'diam
  2. a'me:s     mo'nea:s      re'ga:s      ca'pia:s      au'dia:s
  3. a'met      mo'neat       re'gat       ca'piat       au'diat

     PLURAL
  1. ame:'mus   monea:'mus    rega:'mus    capia:'mus    audia:'mus
  2. ame:'tis   monea:'tis    rega:'tis    capia:'tis    audia:'tis
  3. a'ment     mo'neant      re'gant      ca'piant      au'diant

     PASSIVE VOICE
     SINGULAR
  1. a'mer       mo'near       re'gar       ca'piar       au'diar
  2. ame:'ris    monea:'ris    rega:'ris    capia:'ris    audia:'ris
         (-re)         (-re)        (-re)         (-re)         (-re)
  3. ame:'tur    monea:'tur    rega:'tur    capia:'tur    audia:'tur

     PLURAL
  1. ame:'mur    monea:'mur    rega:'mur    capia:'mur    audia:'mur
  2. ame:'mini:  monea:'mini:  rega:'mini:  capia:'mini:  audia:'mini:
  3. amen'tur    monean'tur    regan'tur    capian'tur    audian'tur

    _a._ The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem.

    _b._ The mood sign of the present subjunctive is -e:- in the first
    conjugation and -a:- in the others. It is shortened in the usual
    places (cf. Sec. 12), and takes the place of the final vowel of the
    stem in the first and third conjugations, but not in the second and
    fourth.

    _c._ The personal endings are the same as in the indicative.

    _d._ In a similar way inflect the present subjunctive of /curo\,
    /iubeo\, /sumo\, /iacio\, /munio\.

_345._ The present subjunctive of the irregular verb /sum\ is inflected
as follows:

        { 1.  sim             { 1.  si:mus
  SING. { 2.  si:s     PLURAL { 2.  si:tis
        { 3.  sit             { 3.  sint

_346._ The Indicative and Subjunctive Compared.

  1. The two most important of the finite moods are the indicative and
  the subjunctive. The indicative deals with facts either real or
  assumed. If, then, we wish to assert something as a fact or to inquire
  after a fact, we use the indicative.

  2. On the other hand, if we wish to express a _desire_ or _wish_, a
  _purpose_, a _possibility_, an _expectation_, or some such notion, we
  must use the subjunctive. The following sentences illustrate the
  difference between the indicative and the subjunctive ideas.

     INDICATIVE IDEAS                SUBJUNCTIVE IDEAS

  1. _He is brave_                    1. _May he be brave_
       Fortis est                          Fortis sit (idea of wishing)
  2. _We set out at once_             2. _Let us set out at once_
       Statim proficiscimur                Statim proficiscamur
                                           (idea of willing)
  3. _You hear him every day_         3. _You can hear him every day_
       Cotidie eum audis                   Cotidie eum audias
                                           (idea of possibility)
  4. _He remained until the ship_     4. _He waited until the ship_
         _arrived_                           _should arrive_
       Mansit dum navis pervenit           Exspectavit dum navis
                                               perveniret[1]
                                           (idea of expectation)
  5. _Caesar sends men who find the_  5. _Caesar sends men_
         _bridge_                            _who are to find_
                                             (or _to find_) _the bridge_
       Caesar mittit homines qui           Caesar homines mittit qui
         pontem reperiunt                      pontem reperiant
                                           (idea of purpose)

    [Footnote 1: /perveniret\, imperfect subjunctive.]

NOTE. From the sentences above we observe that the subjunctive may be
used in either independent or dependent clauses; but it is far more
common in the latter than in the former.

_347._ EXERCISE

Which verbs in the following paragraph would be in the indicative and
which in the subjunctive in a Latin translation?

There have been times in the history of our country when you might be
proud of being an American citizen. Do you remember the day when Dewey
sailed into Manila Bay to capture or destroy the enemy's fleet? You
might have seen the admiral standing on the bridge calmly giving his
orders. He did not even wait until the mines should be removed from the
harbor's mouth, but sailed in at once. Let us not despair of our country
while such valor exists, and may the future add new glories to the past.


LESSON LXII

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE

_348._ Observe the sentence

  Caesar homines mittit qui pontem reperiant,
  _Caesar sends men to find the bridge_

The verb /reperiant\ in the dependent clause is in the subjunctive
because it tells us what Caesar wants the men to do; in other words, it
expresses his will and the purpose in his mind. Such a use of the
subjunctive is called the subjunctive of purpose.

_349._ RULE. Subjunctive of Purpose. _The subjunctive is used in a
dependent clause to express the purpose of the action in the principal
clause._

_350._ A clause of purpose is introduced as follows:

I. If something is wanted, by

  /qui:\, the relative pronoun (as above)
  /ut\, conj., _in order that, that_
  /quo:\ (abl. of /qui:\, _by which_), _in order that, that_, used when
    the purpose clause contains a comparative. The ablative /quo:\
    expresses the measure of difference. (Cf. Sec. 317.)

II. If something is not wanted, by

  /ne:\, conj., _in order that not, that not, lest_

_351._ EXAMPLES

  1. Caesar copias cogit quibus hostis insequatur
    _Caesar collects troops with which to pursue the foe_

  2. Pacem petunt ut domum revertantur
    _They ask for peace in order that they may return home_

  3. Pontem faciunt quo facilius oppidum capiant
    _They build a bridge that they may take the town more easily_
    (lit. _by which the more easily_)

  4. Fugiunt ne vulnerentur
     _They flee that they may not_ (or _lest they_) _be wounded_

_352._ Expression of Purpose in English. In English, purpose clauses
are sometimes introduced by _that_ or _in order that_, but much more
frequently purpose is expressed in English by the infinitive, as _We eat
to live_, _She stoops to conquer_. In Latin prose, on the other hand,
/purpose is never expressed by the infinitive\. Be on your guard and do
not let the English idiom betray you into this error.

_353._ EXERCISES

I.
  1. Veniunt ut         {  ducant, mittant, videant, audiant,
                        {  ducantur, mittantur, videantur, audiantur.
  2. Fugimus ne:        {  capiamur, tradamur, videamus,
                        {  necemur, rapiamur, resistamus.
  3. Mittit nuntios qui { dicant, audiant, veniant,
                        { narrent, audiantur, in concilio sedeant.
  4. Castra muniunt     { sese defendant, impetum sustineant,
         quo: facilius   { hostis vincant, salutem petant.

II. 1. The Helvetii send ambassadors to seek[1] peace. 2. They are
setting out at daybreak in order that they may make a longer march
before night. 3. They will hide the women in the forest (_acc. with_
/in\) that they may not be captured. 4. The Gauls wage many wars to
free[1] their fatherland from slavery. 5. They will resist the Romans[2]
bravely lest they be destroyed.

    [Footnote 1: Not infinitive.]

    [Footnote 2: Not accusative.]


LESSON LXIII

INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

_354._ The imperfect subjunctive may be formed by adding the personal
endings to the present active infinitive.

   CONJ. I        CONJ. II       CONJ. III                   CONJ. IV
   ACTIVE
1. ama:'rem       mone:'rem      re'gerem      ca'perem      audi:'rem
2. ama:'re:s      mone:'re:s     re'gere:s     ca'pere:s     audi:'re:s
3. ama:'ret       mone:'ret      re'geret      ca'peret      audi:'ret

1. ama:re:'mus    mone:re:'mus   regere:'mus   capere:'mus   audi:re:'mus
2. ama:re:'tis    mone:re:'tis   regere:'tis   capere:'tis   audi:re:'tis
3. ama:'rent      mone:'rent     re'gerent     ca'perent     audi:'rent

   PASSIVE
1. ama:'rer       mone:'rer      re'gerer      ca'perer      audi:'rer
2. ama:re:'ris    mone:re:'ris   regere:'ris   capere:'ris   audi:re:'ris
         (-re)           (-re)         (-re)         (-re)          (-re)
3. ama:re:'tur    mone:re:'tur   regere:'tur   capere:'tur   audi:re:'tur

1. ama:re:'mur    mone:re:'mur   regere:'mur   capere:'mur   --re:'mur
2. ama:re:'mini:  mone:re:'mini: regere:'mini: capere:'mini: --re'mini:
3. ama:ren'tur    mone:ren'tur   regeren'tur   caperen'tur   --ren'tur

    _a._ In a similar way inflect the imperfect subjunctive, active and
    passive, of /curo\, /iubeo\, /sumo\, /iacio\, /munio\.

_355._ The imperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb /sum\ is
inflected as follows:

        { 1. es'sem            { 1. esse:'mus
  SING. { 2. es'se:s    PLURAL { 2. esse:'tis
        { 3. es'set            { 3. es'sent

_356._ The three great distinctions of time are _present_, _past_, and
_future_. All tenses referring to present or future time are called
/primary tenses\, and those referring to past time are called /secondary
tenses\. Now it is a very common law of language that in a complex
sentence the tense in the dependent clause should be of the same kind as
the tense in the principal clause. In the sentence _He /says\ that he
/is\ coming_, the principal verb, _says_, is present, that is, is in a
primary tense; and _is coming_, in the dependent clause, is naturally
also primary. If I change _he says_ to _he said_,--in other words, if I
make the principal verb secondary in character,--I feel it natural to
change the verb in the dependent clause also, and I say, _He /said\ that
he /was\ coming_. This following of a tense by another of the same kind
is called _tense sequence_, from _sequi:_, "to follow."

In Latin the law of tense sequence is obeyed with considerable
regularity, especially when an indicative in the principal clause is
followed by a subjunctive in the dependent clause. Then a primary tense
of the indicative is followed by a primary tense of the subjunctive, and
a secondary tense of the indicative is followed by a secondary tense of
the subjunctive. Learn the following table:

_357._ TABLE FOR SEQUENCE OF TENSES

+-----+-------------------+-------------------------------------------+
|     |  PRINCIPAL VERB   |    DEPENDENT VERBS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE     |
| P   |      IN THE       +---------------------+---------------------+
| R   |    INDICATIVE     | _Incomplete or_     | _Completed Action_  |
| I   |                   | _Continuing Action_ |                     |
| M   +-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
| A   |      Present      |                     |                     |
| R   |      Future       |       Present       |       Perfect       |
| T   |   Future perfect  |                     |                     |
+-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
| S D |                   |                     |                     |
| E A |    Imperfect      |                     |                     |
| C R |     Perfect       |      Imperfect      |     Pluperfect      |
| O Y |    Pluperfect     |                     |                     |
| N-  |                   |                     |                     |
+-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

_358._ RULE. Sequence of Tenses. _Primary tenses are followed by
primary tenses and secondary by secondary._

_359._ EXAMPLES

I. Primary tenses in principal and dependent clauses:

  Mittit   }
  Mittet   } homines ut agros vastent
  Miserit  }

       { _sends_          }       { _that they may_           }
  _He_ { _will send_      } _men_ { _in order to_             }
       { _will have sent_ }       { _to lay waste the fields_ }

II. Secondary tenses in principal and dependent clauses:

  Mittebat}
  Misit   } homines ut agros vastarent
  Miserat }

       { _was sending_      }       { _that they might_         }
  _He_ { _sent or has sent_ } _men_ { _in order to_             }
       { _had sent_         }       { _to lay waste the fields_ }

_360._ EXERCISES

I.
  1. Venerant ut {ducerent, mitterent, viderent, audirent,
                 {ducerentur, mitterentur, viderentur, audirentur

  2. Fugiebat ne {caperetur, traderetur, videretur,
                 {necaretur, raperetur, resisteret.

  3. Misit nuntios qui {dicerent, audirent, venirent
                       {narrarent, audirentur, in concilio sederent.

  4. Castra muniverunt {sese defenderent, impetum sustinerent,
       quo facilius    {hostis vincerent, salutem peterent.

II. 1. Caesar encouraged the soldiers in order that they might fight
more bravely. 2. The Helvetii left their homes to wage war. 3. The
scouts set out at once lest they should be captured by the Germans.
4. Caesar inflicted punishment on them in order that the others might be
more terrified. 5. He sent messengers to Rome to announce the victory.


LESSON LXIV

THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE

_361._ The perfect and the pluperfect subjunctive active are inflected
as follows:

   CONJ. I          CONJ. II     CONJ. III                 CONJ. IV
   PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE
   SINGULAR
1. ama:'verim       monu'erim    re:'xerim    ce:'perim    audi:'verim
2. ama:'veris       monu'eris    re:'xeris    ce:'peris    audi:'veris
3. ama:'verit       monu'erit    re:'xerit    ce:'perit    audi:'verit

   PLURAL
1. ama:ve'rimus     monue'rimus  re:xe'rimus  ce:pe'rimus  audi:ve'rimus
2. ama:ve'ritis     monue'ritis  re:xe'ritis  ce:pe'ritis  audi:ve'ritis
3. ama:'verint      monu'erint   re:'xerint   ce:'perint   audi:'verint

   PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE
   SINGULAR
1. ama:vis'sem      monuis'sem   re:xis'sem   ce:pis'sem   audi:vis'sem
2. ama:vis'se:s     monuis'se:s  re:xis'se:s  ce:pis'se:s  audi:vis'se:m
3. ama:vis'set      monuis'set   re:xis'set   ce:pis'set   audi:vis'set

   PLURAL
1. ama:visse:'mus   --isse:'mus  --isse:'mus  --isse:'mus  --isse:'mus
2. ama:visse:'tis   --isse:'tis  --isse:'tis  --isse:'tis  --isse:'tis
3. ama:vis'sent     --is'sent    --is'sent    --is'sent    --is'sent

    _a._ Observe that these two tenses, like the corresponding ones in
    the indicative, are formed from the perfect stem.

    _b._ Observe that the perfect subjunctive active is like the future
    perfect indicative active, excepting that the first person singular
    ends in -m and not in -o:.

    _c._ Observe that the pluperfect subjunctive active may be formed by
    adding /-issem, -isse:s\, etc. to the perfect stem.

    _d._ In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive
    active of /curo\, /iubeo\, /sumo\, /iacio\, /munio\.

_362._ The passive of the perfect subjunctive is formed by combining the
perfect passive participle with /sim\, the present subjunctive of /sum\.

     CONJ. I     CONJ. II     CONJ. III                CONJ. IV
     PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE
     SINGULAR
  1. ama:'tus    mo'nitus     re:c'tus     cap'tus     audi:'tus sim
       sim          sim          sim         sim
  2. ama:'tus    mo'nitus     re:c'tus     cap'tus     audi:'tus si:s
       si:s         si:s         si:s        si:s
  3. ama:'tus    mo'nitus     re:c'tus     cap'tus     audi:'tus sit
       sit          sit          sit         sit

     PLURAL
  1. ama:'ti:    mo'niti:     re:c'ti:     cap'ti:     audi:'ti: si:mus
       si:mus      si:mus       si:mus       si:mus
  2. ama:'ti:    mo'niti:     re:c'ti:     cap'ti:     audi:'ti: si:tis
       si:tis      si:tis       si:tis       si:tis
  3. ama:'ti:    mo'niti:     re:c'ti:     cap'ti:     audi:'ti: sint
       sint         sint         sint        sint

_363._ The passive of the pluperfect subjunctive is formed by combining
the perfect passive participle with /essem\, the imperfect subjunctive
of /sum\.

     CONJ. I     CONJ. II     CONJ. III                CONJ. IV
     PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE
     SINGULAR
  1. ama:tus     monitus      re:ctus      captus      audi:tus essem
       essem       essem         essem       essem
  2. ama:tus     monitus      re:ctus      captus      audi:tus esse:s
       esse:s      esse:s        esse:s      esse:s
  3. ama:tus     monitus      re:ctus      captus      audi:tus esset
       esset       esset         esset       esset
     PLURAL
  1. ama:ti:     moniti:      re:cti:      capti:      audi:ti: esse:mus
       esse:mus    esse:mus      esse:mus    esse:mus
  2. ama:ti:     moniti:      re:cti:      capti:      audi:ti: esse:tis
       esse:tis    esse:tis      esse:tis    esse:tis
  3. ama:ti:     moniti:      re:cti:      capti:      audi:ti: essent
       essent      essent       essent       essent

    _a._ In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive
    passive of /curo\, /iubeo\, /sumo\, /iacio\, /munio\.

_364._ The perfect and pluperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb
/sum\ are inflected as follows:

  PERFECT               PLUPERFECT
  fu'erim  fue'rimus    fuis'sem   fuisse:'mus
  fu'eris  fue'ritis    fuis'se:s  fuisse:'tis
  fu'erit  fu'erint     fuis'set   fuis'sent

_365._ A substantive clause is a clause used like a noun, as,

  _That the men are afraid_ is clear enough (clause as subject)
  He ordered _them to call on him_ (clause as object)

We have already had many instances of infinitive clauses used in this
way (cf. Sec. 213), and have noted the similarity between Latin and
English usage in this respect. But the Latin often uses the
_subjunctive_ in substantive clauses, and this marks an important
difference between the two languages.

_366._ RULE. Substantive Clauses of Purpose. _A substantive clause of
purpose with the subjunctive is used as the object of verbs of
/commanding\, /urging\, /asking\, /persuading\, or /advising\, where in
English we should usually have the infinitive._

EXAMPLES

  1. _The general ordered the soldiers to run_
       Imperator militibus imperavit ut currerent
  2. _He urged them to resist bravely_
       Hortatus est ut fortiter resisterent
  3. _He asked them to give the children food_
       Petivit ut liberis cibum darent
  4. _He will persuade us not to set out_
       Nobis persuadebit ne proficiscamur
  5. _He advises us to remain at home_
       Monet ut domi maneamus

    _a._ The object clauses following these verbs all express the
    purpose or will of the principal subject that something be done or
    not done. (Cf. Sec. 348.)

_367._ The following verbs are used with object clauses of purpose.
Learn the list and the principal parts of the new ones.

  hortor, _urge_
  impero, _order_ (with the _dative_ of the _person_ ordered and a
    _subjunctive clause_ of the _thing_ ordered done)
  moneo, _advise_
  peto, quaero, rogo, _ask, seek_
  persuadeo, _persuade_ (with the same construction as impero)
  postulo, _demand, require_
  suadeo, _advise_ (cf. persuadeo)

N.B. Remember that /iubeo\, _order_, takes the infinitive as in English.
(Cf. Sec. 213.1.) Compare the sentences

  Iubeo eum venire, _I order him to come_
  Impero ei ut veniat, _I give orders to him that he is to come_

We ordinarily translate both of these sentences like the first, but the
difference in meaning between iubeo and impero in the Latin requires the
_infinitive_ in the one case and the _subjunctive_ in the other.

_368._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Petit atque hortatur ut ipse dicat. 2. Caesar Helvetiis imperravit
ne per provinciam iter facerent. 3. Caesar non iussit Helvetios per
provinciam iter facere. 4. Ille civibus persuasit ut de finibus suis
discederent. 5. Caesar principes monebit ne proelium committant.
6. Postulavit ne cum Helvetiis aut cum eorum sociis bellum gererent.
7. Ab iis quaesivi ne proficiscerentur. 8. Iis persuadere non potui ut
domi manerent.

II. 1. Who ordered Caesar to make the march? (_Write this sentence both
with_ /impero\ _and with_ /iubeo\.) 2. The faithless scouts persuaded
him to set out at daybreak. 3. They will ask him not to inflict
punishment. 4. He demanded that they come to the camp. 5. He advised
them to tell everything (omnia).

NOTE. Do not forget that the English infinitive expressing purpose must
be rendered by a Latin subjunctive. Review Sec. 352.

  [Illustration: LEGIO ITER FACIT]


LESSON LXV

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF _POSSUM_ : VERBS OF FEARING

_369._ Learn the subjunctive of /possum\ (Sec. 495), and note especially
the position of the accent.

_370._ Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing. We have learned that what
we want done or not done is expressed in Latin by a subjunctive clause
of purpose. In this class belong also _clauses after verbs of fearing_,
for we fear either that something will happen or that it will not, and
we either want it to happen or we do not. If we want a thing to happen
and fear that it will not, the purpose clause is introduced by /ut\. If
we do not want it to happen and fear that it will, /ne:\ is used. Owing
to a difference between the English and Latin idiom we translate /ut\
after a verb of fearing by _that not_, and /ne:\ by _that_ or _lest_.

_371._ EXAMPLES

  timeo   }      { veniat
  timebo  } ut {
  timuero }      { venerit

_I fear_, _shall fear_, _shall have feared_, _that he will not come_,
_has not come_

  timebam  }      { veniret
  timui    } ut {
  timueram }      { venisset

_I was fearing_, _feared_, _had feared_, _that he would not come_, _had
not come_

The same examples with /ne:\ instead of /ut\ would be translated _I fear
that_ or _lest he will come_, _has come_, etc.

_372._ RULE. Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing. _Verbs of fearing are
followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by /ut\ (that
not) or /ne:\ (that or lest)._

_373._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar verebatur ut supplicium captivorum Gallis placeret.
2. Romani ipsi magnopere verebantur ne Helvetii iter per provinciam
facerent. 3. Timebant ut satis rei frumentariae mitti posset. 4. Vereor
ut hostium impetum sustinere possim. 5. Timuit ne impedimenta ab
hostibus capta essent. 6. Caesar numquam timuit ne legiones vincerentur.
7. Legiones pugnare non timuerunt.[1]

II. 1. We fear that they are not coming. 2. We fear lest they are
coming. 3. We feared that they had come. 4. We feared that they had
not come. 5. They feared greatly that the camp could not be defended.
6. Almost all feared[1] to leave the camp.

    [Footnote 1: Distinguish between what one is afraid _to do_
    (complementary infinitive as here) and what one is afraid _will
    take place_ or _has taken place_ (substantive clause with the
    subjunctive).]


LESSON LXVI

THE PARTICIPLES

_374._ The Latin verb has the following Participles:[1]

  [Transcriber's Note:
  For reasons of space, this table is given in two forms: first a
  reduced version without translation, and then the complete text,
  including translations, split into two elements.]

            CONJ. I   CONJ. II   CONJ. III           CONJ. IV
            ACTIVE
  PRESENT   ama:ns     mone:ns     rege:ns    capie:ns   audie:ns
  FUTURE    ama:tu:rus  monitu:rus  re:ctu:rus  captu:rus  audi:tu:rus

            PASSIVE
  PERFECT   ama:tus    monitus    re:ctus    captus    audi:tus
  FUTURE[2] amandus   monendus   regendus  capiendus  audiendus

            CONJ. I            CONJ. II
            ACTIVE
  PRESENT   ama:ns              mone:ns
              _loving_           _advising_
  FUTURE    ama:tu:rus           monitu:rus
              _about to love_    _about to advise_

            PASSIVE
  PERFECT   ama:tus             monitus
              _loved, having_  _advised, having been advised_
              _been loved_
  FUTURE[2] amandus            monendus
              _to be loved_    _to be advised_

            CONJ. III                            CONJ. IV
            ACTIVE
  PRESENT   rege:ns             capie:ns           audie:ns
              _ruling_           _taking_         _hearing_
  FUTURE    re:ctu:rus           captu:rus          audi:tu:rus
              _about to rule_   _about to take_    _about to hear_

            PASSIVE
  PERFECT   re:ctus             captus              audi:tus
              _ruled, having_    _taken, having_     _heard, havinh_
              _been ruled_       _been taken_        _been heard_
  FUTURE[2] regendus           capiendus           audiendus
              _to be ruled_      _to be taken_       _to be heard_

    [Footnote 1: Review Sec. 203.]

    [Footnote 2: The future passive participle is often called the
    _gerundive_.]

    _a._ The present active and future passive participles are formed
    from the present stem, and the future active and perfect passive
    participles are formed from the participial stem.

    _b._ The present active participle is formed by adding -ns to the
    present stem. In -io: verbs of the third conjugation, and in the
    fourth conjugation, the stem is modified by the addition of -e:-,
    as /capi-e:-ns\, /audi-e:-ns\. It is declined like an adjective of
    one ending of the third declension. (Cf. Sec. 256.)

        amans, _loving_
        BASE amant- STEM amanti-

        SINGULAR                     PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.        MASC. AND FEM.      NEUT.
  Nom.  ama:ns          ama:ns       amante:s            amantia
  Gen.  amantis         amantis      amantium            amantium
  Dat.  amanti:         amanti:      amantibus           amantibus
  Acc.  amantem         ama:ns       amanti:s _or_ -e:s  amantia
  Abl.  amanti:         amanti:      amantibus           amantibus
         _or_ -e         _or_ -e

  (1) When used as an adjective the ablative singular ends in -i:;
  when used as a participle or as a substantive, in -e.

  (2) In a similar way decline /monens\, /regens\, /capiens\, /audiens\.

    _c._ The future active participle is formed by adding -u:rus to the
    base of the participial stem. We have already met this form combined
    with /esse\ to produce the future active infinitive. (Cf. Sec. 206.)

    _d._ For the perfect passive participle see Sec. 201. The future
    passive participle or gerundive is formed by adding -ndus to the
    present stem.

    _e._ All participles in -us are declined like /bonus\.

    _f._ Participles agree with nouns or pronouns like adjectives.

    _g._ Give all the participles of the following verbs: /curo\,
    /iubeo\, /sumo\, /iacio\, /munio\.

_375._ Participles of Deponent Verbs. Deponent verbs have the
participles of the active voice as well as of the passive; consequently
every deponent verb has four participles, as,

                _Pres. Act._ horta:ns, _urging_
                 _Fut. Act._ horta:tu:rus, _about to urge_
     _Perf. Pass._ (in form) horta:tus, _having urged_
  _Fut. Pass._ (_Gerundive_) hortandus, _to be urged_

    _a._ Observe that the perfect participle of deponent verbs is
    passive in form but _active_ in meaning. _No other verbs have a
    perfect active participle._ On the other hand, the future passive
    participle of deponent verbs is passive in meaning as in other
    verbs.

    _b._ Give the participles of /conor\, /vereor\, /sequor\, /patior\,
    /partior\.

_376._ Tenses of the Participle. The tenses express time as follows:

  1. The present active participle corresponds to the English present
  active participle in _-ing_, but can be used only of an action
  occurring at the same time as the action of the main verb; as,
  /milites insequentes ceperunt multos\, _the soldiers, while pursuing,
  captured many._ Here the pursuing and the capturing are going on
  together.

  2. The perfect participle (excepting of deponents) is regularly
  passive and corresponds to the English past participle with or without
  the auxiliary _having been_; as, /auditus\, _heard_ or _having been
  heard_.

  3. The future active participle, translated _about to_, etc., denotes
  time after the action of the main verb.

_377._ Review Secs. 203, 204, and, note the following model sentences:

  1. /Milites currentes erant defessi\, _the soldiers who were running_
  (lit. _running_) _were weary_.

  2. /Caesar profecturus Romam non exspectavit\, _Caesar, when about to
  set out_ (lit. _about to set out_) _for Rome, did not wait_.

  3. /Oppidum captum vidimus\, _we saw the town which had been captured_
  (lit. _captured town_).

  4. /Imperator triduum moratus profectus est\, _the general, since_
  (_when_, or _after_) _he had delayed_ (lit. _the general, having
  delayed_) _three days, set out_.

  5. /Milites victi terga non verterunt\, _the soldiers, though they
  were conquered_ (lit. _the soldiers conquered_), _did not retreat_.

In each of these sentences the literal translation of the participle is
given in parentheses. We note, however, that its proper translation
usually requires a clause beginning with some conjunction (_when, since,
after, though_, etc.), or a relative clause. Consider, in each case,
what translation will best bring out the thought, and do not, as a rule,
translate the participle literally.

_378._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Puer timens ne capiatur fugit. 2. Aquila ira commota avis reliquas
interficere conata erat. 3. Milites ab hostibus pressi tela iacere non
potuerunt. 4. Caesar decimam legionem laudaturus ad primum agmen
progressus est. 5. Imperator hortatus equites ut fortiter pugnarent
signum proelio dedit. 6. Milites hostis octo milia passuum insecuti
multis cum captivis ad castra reverterunt. 7. Sol oriens multos
interfectos vidit. 8. Romani consilium audax suspicati barbaris sese
non commiserunt. 9. Navis e portu egressa nullo in periculo erat.

II.[3] 1. The army was in very great danger while marching through the
enemy's country. 2. Frightened by the length of the way, they longed for
home. 3. When the scouts were about to set out, they heard the shouts of
victory. 4. When we had delayed many days, we set fire to the buildings
and departed. 5. While living at Rome I heard orators much better than
these. 6. The soldiers who are fighting across the river are no braver
than we.

    [Footnote 3: In this exercise use participles for the subordinate
    clauses.]


LESSON LXVII

THE IRREGULAR VERBS _VOLO:_, _NO:LO:_, _MALO:_
THE ABLATIVE WITH A PARTICIPLE, OR ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE

_379._ Learn the principal parts and conjugation of /volo:\, _wish_;
/no:lo:\ (ne + volo:), _be unwilling_; /malo:\ (magis + volo:), _be
more willing, prefer_ (Sec. 497). Note the irregularities in the present
indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive, and in the imperfect
subjunctive. (Cf. Sec. 354.)

    _a._ These verbs are usually followed by the infinitive with or
    without a subject accusative; as, /volunt venire\, _they wish to
    come_; /volunt amico:s venire\, _they wish their friends to come_.
    The English usage is the same.[1]

    [Footnote 1: Sometimes the subjunctive of purpose is used after
    these verbs. (See Sec. 366.)]

[ Conjugations given in Sec. 497:

  PRINCIPAL PARTS:
  volo:, velle, volui:, ----, _be willing, will, wish_
  no:lo:, no:lle, no:lui:, ----, _be unwilling, will not_
  ma:lo:, ma:lle, ma:lui:, ----, _be more willing, prefer_

  INDICATIVE
           SINGULAR
  _Pres._  volo:             no:lo:              ma:lo:
           vi:s              no:n vis            ma:vi:s
           vult              no:n vult           ma:vult

           PLURAL
           volumus           no:lumus            ma:lumus
           vultis            no:n vultis         ma:vul'tis
           volunt            no:lunt             ma:lunt

  _Impf._  vole:bam          no:le:bam           ma:le:bam
  _Fut._   volam,            no:lam,             ma:lam, ma:le:s, etc.
             vole:s, etc.       no:le:s, etc.
  _Perf._  volui:            no:lui:             ma:lui:
  _Plup._  volueram          no:lueram           ma:lueram
  _F. P._  voluero:          no:luero:           ma:luero:

  SUBJUNCTIVE
           SINGULAR
  _Pres._  velim             no:lim              ma:lim
           veli:s            no:li:s             ma:li:s
           velit             no:lit              ma:lit

           PLURAL
           veli:'mus         no:li:'mus          ma:li:'mus
           veli:'tis         no:li:'tis          ma:li:'tis
           velint            no:lint             ma:lint

  _Impf._  vellem            no:llem             ma:llem
  _Perf._  voluerim          no:luerim           ma:luerim
  _Plup._  voluissem         no:luissem          ma:luissem


  IMPERATIVE
  _Pres._  no:li:
           no:li:te
  _Fut._   no:li:to:, etc.

  INFINITIVE
  _Pres._  velle             no:lle              ma:lle
  _Perf._  voluisse          no:luisse           ma:luisse

  PARTICIPLE
  _Pres._  vole:ns, -entis   no:le:ns, -entis     ----]

_380._ Observe the following sentences:

  1. Magistro laudante omnes pueri diligenter laborant, _with the
  teacher praising_, or _since the teacher praises_, or _the teacher
  praising, all the boys labor diligently._

  2. Caesare ducente nemo progredi timet, _with Caesar leading_, or
  _when Caesar leads_, or _if Caesar leads_, or _Caesar leading, no one
  fears to advance._

  3. His rebus cognitis milites fugerunt, _when this was known_, or
  _since this was known_, or _these things having been learned, the
  soldiers fled._

  4. Proelio commisso multi vulnerati sunt, _after the battle had
  begun_, or _when the battle had begun_, or _the battle having been
  joined, many were wounded._

    _a._ One of the fundamental ablative relations is expressed in
    English by the preposition _with_ (cf. Sec. 50). In each of the
    sentences above we have a noun and a participle in agreement in
    the ablative, and the translation shows that in each instance the
    ablative expresses _attendant circumstance_. For example, in the
    first sentence the circumstance attending or accompanying the
    diligent labor of the boys is the praise of the teacher. This is
    clearly a _with_ relation, and the ablative is the case to use.

    _b._ We observe, further, that the ablative and its participle are
    absolutely independent grammatically of the rest of the sentence.
    If we were to express the thought in English in a similar way, we
    should use the nominative independent or absolute. In Latin the
    construction is called the Ablative Absolute, or the Ablative with a
    Participle. This form of expression is exceedingly common in Latin,
    but rather rare in English, so we must not, as a rule, employ the
    English absolute construction to translate the ablative abolute. The
    attendant circumstance may be one of _time_ (when or after), or one
    of _cause_ (since), or one of _concession_ (though), or one of
    _condition_ (if). In each case try to discover the precise relation,
    and tranlate the ablative and its participle by a clause which will
    best express the thought.

_381._ RULE. Ablative Absolute. _The ablative of a noun or pronoun
with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express
attendant circumstance._

NOTE 1. The verb /sum\ has no present participle. In consequence we
often find two nouns or a noun and an adjective in the ablative absolute
with no participle expressed; as, /te duce\, _you_ (being) _leader_,
_with you as leader_; /patre infirmo\, _my father_ (being) _weak_.

NOTE 2. Be very careful not to put in the ablative absolute a noun and
participle that form the subject or object of a sentence. Compare

    _a._ _The Gauls, having been conquered by Caesar, returned home_

    _b._ _The Gauls having been conquered by Caesar, the army returned
           home_

In _a_ the subject is _The Gauls having been conquered by Caesar_, and
we translate,

  Galli a Caesare victi domum reverterunt

In _b_ the subject is _the army_. _The Gauls having been conquered by
Caesar_ is nominative absolute in English, which requires the ablative
absolute in Latin, and we translate,

  Gallis a Caesare victis exercitus domum revertit

NOTE 3. The fact that only deponent verbs have a perfect active
participle (cf. Sec. 375.a) often compels a change of voice when
translating from one language to the other. For example, we can
translate _Caesar having encouraged the legions_ just as it stands,
because /hortor\ is a deponent verb. But if we wish to say _Caesar
having conquered the Gauls_, we have to change the voice of the
participle to the passive because /vinco\ is not deponent, and say,
_the Gauls having been conquered by Caesar_ (see translation above).

_382._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Mavis, non vis, vultis, nolumus. 2. Ut nolit, ut vellemus, ut
malit. 3. Noli, velle, noluisse, malle. 4. Vult, mavultis, ut nollet,
nolite. 5. Sole oriente, aves cantare inceperunt. 6. Clamoribus auditis,
barbari progredi recusabant. 7. Caesare legiones hortato, milites paulo
fortius pugnaverunt. 8. His rebus cognitis, Helvetii finitimis
persuaserunt ut secum iter facerent. 9. Laboribus confectis, milites
a Caesare quaerebant ut sibi praemia daret. 10. Concilio convocato,
principes ita responderunt. 11. Dux pluris dies in Helvetiorum finibus
morans multos vicos incendit. 12. Magnitudine Germanorum cognita, quidam
ex Romanis timebant. 13. Mercatoribus rogatis, Caesar nihilo plus
reperire potuit.

II. 1. He was unwilling, lest they prefer, they have wished. 2. You
prefer, that they might be unwilling, they wish. 3. We wish, they had
preferred, that he may prefer. 4. Caesar, when he heard the rumor (_the
rumor having been heard_), commanded (imperare) the legions to advance
more quickly. 5. Since Caesar was leader, the men were willing to make
the journey. 6. A few, terrified[2] by the reports which they had heard,
preferred to remain at home. 7. After these had been left behind, the
rest hastened as quickly as possible. 8. After Caesar had undertaken the
business (_Caesar, the business having been undertaken_), he was
unwilling to delay longer.[3]

    [Footnote 2: Would the ablative absolute be correct here?]

    [Footnote 3: Not /longius\. Why?]


LESSON LXVIII

THE IRREGULAR VERB _FIO:_ : THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT

_383._ The verb /fi:o:\, _be made, happen_, serves as the passive of
/facio:\, _make_, in the present system. The rest of the verb is formed
regularly from /facio:\. Learn the principal parts and conjugation
(Sec. 500). Observe that the /i\ is long except before -er and in
/fit\.

    _a._ The compounds of /facio\ with prepositions usually form the
    passive regularly, as,

      _Active_   conficio, conficere, confeci, confectus
      _Passive_  conficior, confici, confectus sum

[ Conjugation given in Sec. 500:

  PRINCIPAL PARTS /fi:o:, fieri:, factus sum\

  INDICATIVE                 SUBJUNCTIVE              IMPERATIVE
  _Pres._  fi:o:      ----     fi:am          _2d Pers._ fi:      fi:te
           fi:s      ----
           fit      fi:unt
  _Impf._  fi:e:bam            fierem
  _Fut._   fi:am              ----

  INDICATIVE                       SUBJUNCTIVE
  _Perf._  factus, -a, -um  sum    factus, -a, -um  sim
  _Plup._  factus, -a, -um  eram   factus, -a, -um  essem
  _F. P._  factus, -a, -um  ero:

  INFINITIVE                       PARTICIPLES
  _Pres._  fieri:                   _Perf._  factus, -a, -um
  _Perf._  factus, -a, -um  esse   _Ger._   faciendus, -a, -um
  _Fut._   [[factum i:ri:]]]

_384._ Observe the following sentences:

  1. Terror erat tantus ut omnes fugerent, _the terror was so great
  that all fled._

  2. Terror erat tantus ut non facile milites sese reciperent, _the
  terror was so great that the soldiers did not easily recover
  themselves._

  3. Terror fecit ut omnes fugerent, _terror caused all to flee_
  (lit. _made that all fled_).

    _a._ Each of these sentences is complex, containing a principal
    clause and a subordinate clause.

    _b._ The principal clause names a cause and the subordinate clause
    states the _consequence_ or _result_ of this cause.

    _c._ The subordinate clause has its verb in the subjunctive, though
    it is translated like an indicative. The construction is called the
    _subjunctive of consequence or result_, and the clause is called a
    consecutive or result clause.

    _d._ In the last example the clause of result is the object of the
    verb /fecit\.

    _e._ The conjunction introducing the consecutive or result clause is
    /ut\ = _so that_; negative, /ut no:n\ = _so that not_.

_385._ RULE. Subjunctive of Result. _Consecutive clauses of result are
introduced by /ut\ or /ut no:n\ and have the verb in the subjunctive._

_386._ RULE. _Object clauses of result with /ut\ or /ut no:n\ are found
after verbs of /effecting\ or /bringing about\._

_387._ Purpose and Result Clauses Compared. There is great similarity
in the expression of purpose and of result in Latin. If the sentence is
affirmative, both purpose and result clauses may be introduced by /ut\;
but if the sentence is negative, the purpose clause has /ne:\ and the
result clause /ut no:n\. Result clauses are often preceded in the main
clause by such words as /tam\, /ita\, /sic\ (_so_), and these serve to
point them out. Compare

    _a._ Tam graviter vulneratus est ut caperetur
      _He was so severely wounded that he was captured_
    _b._ Graviter vulneratus est ut caperetur
      _He was severely wounded in order that he might be captured_

Which sentence contains a result clause, and how is it pointed out?

_388._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Fit, fiet, ut fiat, fiebamus. 2. Fio, fies, ut fierent, fieri,
fiunt. 3. Fietis, ut fiamus, fis, fiemus. 4. Milites erant tam tardi
ut ante noctem in castra non pervenirent. 5. Sol facit ut omnia sint
pulchra. 6. Eius modi pericula erant ut nemo proficisci vellet.
7. Equites hostium cum equitatu nostro in itinere contenderunt, ita
tamen[1] ut nostri omnibus in partibus superiores essent. 8. Virtus
militum nostrorum fecit ut hostes ne unum quidem[2] impetum sustinerent.
9. Homines erant tam audaces ut nullo modo contineri possent.
10. Spatium erat tam parvum ut milites tela iacere non facile possent.
11. Hoc proelio facto barbari ita perterriti sunt ut ab ultimis gentibus
legati ad Caesarem mitterentur. 12. Hoc proelium factum est ne legati ad
Caesarem mitterentur.

    [Footnote 1: /ita tamen\, _with such a result however_.]

    [Footnote 2: /ne: ... quidem\, _not even_. The emphatic word is
    placed between.]

II. 1. It will happen, they were being made, that it may happen. 2. It
happens, he will be made, to happen. 3. They are made, we were being
made, lest it happen. 4. The soldiers are so brave that they conquer.
5. The soldiers are brave in order that they may conquer. 6. The
fortification was made so strong that it could not be taken. 7. The
fortification was made strong in order that it might not be taken.
8. After the town was taken,[3] the townsmen feared that they would be
made slaves. 9. What state is so weak that it is unwilling to defend
itself?

    [Footnote 3: Ablative absolute.]


LESSON LXIX

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC OR DESCRIPTION
THE PREDICATE ACCUSATIVE

_389._ Akin to the subjunctive of consequence or result is the use of
the subjunctive in clauses of characteristic or description.

This construction is illustrated in the following sentences:

  1. Quis est qui suam domum non amet? _who is there who does not love
  his own home?_

  2. Erant qui hoc facere nollent, _there were (some) who were
  unwilling to do this._

  3. Tu non is es qui amicos tradas, _you are not such a one as to_,
  or _you are not the man to, betray your friends._

  4. Nihil video quod timeam, _I see nothing to fear_ (nothing of such
  as character as to fear it).

    _a._ Each of these examples contains a descriptive relative clause
    which tells what kind of a person or thing the antecedent is. To
    express this thought the subjunctive is used. A relative clause that
    merely states a fact and does not describe the antecedent uses the
    indicative. Compare the sentences

      _Caesar is the man who is leading us_,
        Caesar est is qui nos ducit
          (mere statement of fact, no description, with the indicative)
      _Caesar is the man to lead us_,
        Caesar est is qui nos ducat
          (descriptive relative clause with the subjunctive)

    _b._ Observe that in this construction a demonstrative pronoun and a
    relative, as is /qui\, are translated _such a one as to, the man
    to_.

    _c._ In which of the following sentences would you use the
    indicative and in which the subjunctive?

       _These are not the men who did this_
       _These are not the men to do this_

_390._ RULE. Subjunctive of Characteristic. _A relative clause with
the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called
the /subjunctive of characteristic or description\._

_391._ Observe the sentences

  1. Romani /Caesarem consulem\ fecerunt,
       _the Romans made /Caesar consul\_.

  2. /Caesar consul\ a Romanis factus est,
       _/Caesar\ was made /consul\ by the Romans_.

    _a._ Observe in 1 that the transitive verb /fecerunt\, _made_, has
    two objects: (1) the direct object, /Caesarem\; (2) a second object,
    /consulem\, referring to the same person as the direct object and
    completing the predicate. The second accusative is called a
    Predicate Accusative.

    _b._ Observe in 2 that when the verb is changed to the passive both
    of the accusatives become nominatives, the _direct object_ becoming
    the _subject_ and the _predicate accusative_ the _predicate
    nominative_.

_392._ RULE. Two Accusatives. _Verbs of /making\, /choosing\,
/calling\, /showing\, and the like, may take a predicate accusative
along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives
become nominatives._

_393._ The verbs commonly found with two accusatives are

  creo, creare, creavi, creatus, _choose_
  appello, appellare, appellavi, appellatus }
  nomino, nominare, nominavi, nominatus     } _call_
  voco, vocare, vocavi, vocatus             }
  facio, facere, feci, factus, _make_

_394._ EXERCISES

I. 1. In Germaniae silvis sunt[1] multa genera ferarum quae reliquis
in locis non visa sint. 2. Erant[1] itinera duo quibus Helvetii domo
discedere possent. 3. Erat[1] manus nulla, nullum oppidum, nullum
praesidium quod se armis defenderet. 4. Toto frumento rapto, domi nihil
erat quo mortem prohibere possent. 5. Romani Galbam ducem creaverunt et
summa celeritate profecti sunt. 6. Neque erat[1] tantae multitudinis
quisquam qui morari vellet. 7. Germani non ii sunt qui adventum Caesaris
vereantur. 8. Consulibus occisis erant qui[2] vellent cum regem creare.
9. Pace facta erat nemo qui arma tradere nollet. 10. Inter Helvetios
quis erat qui nobilior illo esset?

II. 1. The Romans called the city Rome. 2. The city was called Rome by
the Romans. 3. The better citizens wished to choose him king. 4. The
brave soldier was not the man to run. 5. There was no one [3]to call me
friend. 6. These are not the men to[4] betray their friends. 7. There
were (some) who called him the bravest of all.

    [Footnote 1: Remember that when the verb /sum\ precedes its subject
    it is translated _there is_, _there are_, _there were_, etc.]

    [Footnote 2: /erant qui\, _there were_ (some) _who_. A wholly
    indefinite antecedent of /qui\ does not need to be expressed.]

    [Footnote 3: A relative clause of characteristic or description.]

    [Footnote 4: See Sec. 389.b.]

       *       *       *       *       *

  Eighth Review, Lessons LXI-LXIX, Secs. 527-528

       *       *       *       *       *

LESSON LXX

THE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE CONJUNCTION _CUM_ THE ABLATIVE OF
SPECIFICATION

_395._ The conjunction /cum\ has the following meanings and
constructions:

  cum TEMPORAL = _when_, followed by the indicative or the subjunctive
  cum CAUSAL = _since_, followed by the subjunctive
  cum CONCESSIVE = _although_, followed by the subjunctive

As you observe, the mood after /cum\ is sometimes indicative and
sometimes subjunctive. The reason for this will be made clear by a study
of the following sentences:

  1. Caesarem vidi tum cum in Gallia eram,
       _I saw Caesar at the time when I was in Gaul_.

  2. Caesar in eos impetum fecit cum pacem peterent,
       _Caesar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace_.

  3. Hoc erat difficile cum pauci sine vulneribus essent,
       _this was difficult, since only a few were without wounds_.

  4. Cum primi ordines fugissent, tamen reliqui fortiter consistebant,
       _though the front ranks had fled, yet the rest bravely stood
       their ground_.

    _a._ The underlying principle is one already familiar to you (cf.
    Sec. 389.a). When the /cum\ clause states a fact and simply _fixes
    the time_ at which the main action took place, the indicative mood
    is used. So, in the first example, /cum in Gallia eram\ fixes the
    time when I saw Caesar.

    _b._ On the other hand, when the /cum\ clause _describes the
    circumstances_ under which the main act took place, the subjunctive
    mood is used. So, in the second example, the principal clause states
    that Caesar made an attack, and the /cum\ clause describes the
    circumstances under which this act occurred. The idea of _time_ is
    also present, but it is subordinate to the idea of _description_.
    Sometimes the descriptive clause is one of _cause_ and we translate
    /cum\ by _since_; sometimes it denotes _concession_ and /cum\ is
    translated _although_.

_396._ RULE. Constructions with _Cum_. _The conjunction /cum\ means
/when\, /since\, or /although\. It is followed by the subjunctive unless
it means /when\ and its clause fixes the time at which the main action
took place._

NOTE. /Cum\ in clauses of description with the subjunctive is much more
common than its use with the indicative.

_397._ Note the following sentences:

  1. Oppidum erat parvum magnitudine sed magnum multitudine hominum,
    _the town was small in size but great in population_.

  2. Homo erat corpore infirmus sed validus animo,
       _the man was weak in body but strong in courage_.

    _a._ Observe that /magnitudine\, /multitudine\, /corpore\, and
    /animo\ tell _in what respect_ something is true. The relation is
    one covered by the ablative case, and the construction is called the
    _ablative of specification_.

_398._ RULE. Ablative of Specification. _The ablative is used to
denote /in what respect\ something is true._

_399._ IDIOMS

  aliquem certiorem facere, _to inform some one_ (lit. _to make some
    one more certain_)
  certior fieri, _to be informed_ (lit. _to be made more certain_)
  iter dare, _to give a right of way, allow to pass_
  obsides inter se dare, _to give hostages to each other_

_400._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Helvetii cum patrum nostrorum tempore domo prefecti essent,
consulis exercitum in fugam dederant. 2. Cum Caesar in Galliam venit,
Helvetii alios agros petebant. 3. Caesar cum in citeriore Gallia esset,
tamen de Helvetiorum consiliis certior fiebat. 4. Cum Helvetii bello
clarissimi essent, Caesar iter per provinciam dare recusavit. 5. Legatus
cum haec audivisset, Caesarem certiorem fecit. 6. Cum principes inter se
obsides darent, Romani bellum paraverunt. 7. Caesar, cum id nuntiatum
esset, maturat ab urbe proficisci. 8. Ne virtute quidem Galli erant
pares Germanis. 9. Caesar neque corpore neque animo infirmus erat.
10. Illud bellum tum incepit cum Caesar fuit consul.

Observe in each case what mood follows /cum\, and try to give the
reasons for its use. In the third sentence the /cum\ clause is
concessive, in the fourth and sixth causal.

II. 1. That battle was fought at the time when (tum cum) I was at
Rome. 2. Though the horsemen were few in number, nevertheless they did
not retreat. 3. When the camp had been sufficiently fortified, the enemy
returned home. 4. Since the tribes are giving hostages to each other,
we shall inform Caesar. 5. The Gauls and the Germans are very unlike in
language and laws.


LESSON LXXI

VOCABULARY REVIEW : THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE : THE PREDICATE GENITIVE

_401._ Review the word lists in Secs. 510, 511.

_402._ The Gerund. Suppose we had to translate the sentence

  _By overcoming the Gauls Caesar won great glory_

We can see that _overcoming_ here is a verbal noun corresponding to
the English infinitive in _-ing_, and that the thought calls for the
ablative of means. To translate this by the Latin infinitive would be
impossible, because the infinitive is indeclinable and therefore has
no ablative case form. Latin, however, has another verbal noun of
corresponding meaning, called the /gerund\, declined as a neuter of
the second declension in the _genitive_, _dative_, _accusative_, and
_ablative singular_, and thus supplying the cases that the infinitive
lacks.[1] Hence, to decline in Latin the verbal noun _overcoming_, we
should use the infinitive for the nominative and the gerund for the
other cases, as follows:

  Nom.  supera:re, _overcoming, to overcome_   INFINITIVE
  Gen.  superandi:, _of overcoming_            }
  Dat.  superando:,  _for overcoming_          }
  Acc.  superandum, _overcoming_               } GERUND
  Abl.  superando:, _by overcoming_            }

Like the infinitive, the gerund governs the same case as the verb from
which it is derived. So the sentence given above becomes in Latin

  Superando Gallos Caesar magnam gloriam reportavit

    [Footnote 1: Sometimes, however, the infinitive is used as an
    accusative.]

_403._ The gerund[2] is formed by adding /-ndi:, -ndo, -ndum, -ndo\, to
the present stem, which is shortened or otherwise changed, as shown
below:

PARADIGM OF THE GERUND

        CONJ. I    CONJ. II    CONJ. III                CONJ. IV
  Gen.  amandi:    monendi:    regendi:    capiendi:    audiendi:
  Dat.  amando:    monendo:    regendo:    capiendo:    audiendo:
  Acc.  amandum    monendum    regendum    capiendum    audiendum
  Abl.  amando:    monendo:    regendo:    capiendo:    audiendo:

    _a._ Give the gerund of /curo\, /deleo\, /sumo\, /iacio\, /venio\.

    _b._ Deponent verbs have the gerund of the active voice (see Sec.
    493). Give the gerund of /conor\, /vereor\, /sequor\, /patior\,
    /partior\.

    [Footnote 2: The gerund is the neuter singular of the future
    passive participle used as a noun, and has the same formation.
    (Cf. Sec. 374.d.)]

_404._ The Gerundive. The gerundive is the name given to the future
passive participle (Sec. 374.d) when the participle approaches the
meaning of a verbal noun and is translated like a gerund. It is the
adjective corresponding to the gerund. For example, to translate _the
plan of waging war_, we may use the gerund with its direct object and
say /consilium gerendi bellum\; or we may use the gerundive and say
/consilium belli gerendi\, which means, literally, _the plan of the war
to be waged_, but which came to have the same force as the gerund with
its object, and was even preferred to it.

_405._ Compare the following parallel uses of the gerund and gerundive:

        GERUND                          GERUNDIVE
  Gen.  Spes faciendi pacem             Spes faciendae pacis
  Dat.  Locus idoneus pugnando          Locus idoneus castris ponendis
          _A place suitable for           _A place suitable for
             fighting_                       pitching camp_
  Acc.  Misit equites ad insequendum    Misit equites ad insequendos
                                            hostis
          _He sent horsemen to pursue_    _He sent horsemen to pursue
                                             the enemy_
  Abl.  Narrando fabulas magister       Narrandis fabulis magister
            pueris placuit                  pueris placuit
          _The teacher pleased the        _The teacher pleased the
             boys by telling stories_        boys by telling stories_

    _a._ We observe

      (1) That the gerund is a noun and the gerundive an adjective.
      (2) That the gerund, being a noun, may stand alone or with an
      object.
      (3) That the gerundive, being an adjective, is used only in
      agreement with a noun.

_406._ RULE. Gerund and Gerundive.

  1. _The Gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive,
  dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these
  cases are in general the same as those of other nouns._

  2. _The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of
  gerund + object excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without
  a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is
  more usual._

_407._ RULE. Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose. _The accusative of the
gerund or gerundive with_ /ad\, _or the genitive with /causa\[3] (= for
the sake of), is used to express purpose._

  GERUND                        GERUNDIVE
  Ad audiendum venerunt or    Ad urbem videndam venerunt or
    Audiendi causa venerunt     Urbis videndae causa venerunt
    _They came to hear_           _They came to see the city_

    [Footnote 3: /causa\ always _follows_ the genitive.]

NOTE. These sentences might, of course, be written with the subjunctive
of purpose,--/venerunt ut audirent\; /venerunt ut urbem viderent\. In
short expressions, however, the gerund and gerundive of purpose are
rather more common.

_408._ We have learned that the word denoting the owner or possessor of
something is in the genitive, as, /equus Galbae\, _Galba's horse._ If,
now, we wish to express the idea _the horse is Galba's_, Galba remains
the possessor, and hence in the genitive as before, but now stands in
the predicate, as, /equus est Galbae\. Hence this is called the
predicate genitive.

_409._ RULE. Predicate Genitive. _The possessive genitive often stands
in the predicate, especially after the forms of /sum\, and is then
called the predicate genitive._

_410._ IDIOMS

  alicui negotium dare, _to employ someone_
    (lit. _to give business to some one_)
  novis rebus studere, _to be eager for a revolution_
    (lit. _to be eager for new things_)
  rei militaris peritissimus, _very skillful in the art of war_
  se suaque omnia, _themselves and all their possessions_

_411._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar cum in Gallia bellum gereret, militibus decimae legionis
maxime favit quia rei militaris peritissimi erant. 2. Sociis negotium
dedit rei frumentariae curandae. 3. Legati non solum audiendi causa sed
etiam dicendi causa venerunt. 4. Imperator iussit exploratores locum
idoneum munindo reperire. 5. Nuper hae gentes novis rebus studebant;
mox iis persuadebo ut Caesari se suaque omnia dedant. 6. Iubere est
reginae[4] et parere est multitudinis.[4] 7. Hoc proelio facto quidam ex
hostibus ad pacem petendam venerunt. 8. Erant qui arma tradere nollent.
9. Hostes tam celeriter progressi sunt ut spatium pila in hostis
iaciendi non daretur. 10. Spatium neque arma capiendi[5] neque auxili
petendi[5] datum est.

II. 1. These ornaments [6]belong to Cornelia. 2. Men very skillful in
the art of war were sent [7]to capture the town. 3. The scouts found a
hill suitable for fortifying very near to the river. 4. Soon the cavalry
will come [8]to seek supplies. 5. The mind of the Gauls is eager for
revolution and for undertaking wars. 6. To lead the line of battle
[9]belongs to the general. 7. [10]Whom shall we employ to look after
the grain supply?

    [Footnote 4: Predicate genitive.]

    [Footnote 5: Which of these expressions is gerund and which
    gerundive?]

    [Footnote 6: _belong to_ = _are of_.]

    [Footnote 7: Use the gerundive with /ad\.]

    [Footnote 8: Use the genitive with /causa\. Where should /causa\
    stand?]

    [Footnote 9: Compare the first sentence.]

    [Footnote 10: Compare the second sentence in the Latin above.]


LESSON LXXII

THE IRREGULAR VERB _EO:_ : INDIRECT STATEMENTS

_412._ Learn the principal parts and the conjugation of /eo:\, _go_
(Sec. 499).

    _a._ Notice that i:-, the root of /eo:\, is changed to e- before
    a vowel, excepting in /iens\, the nominative of the present
    participle. In the perfect system -v- is regularly dropped.

[ Conjugation given in Sec. 499:

  PRINCIPAL PARTS eo:, i:re, ii: (i:vi:), itum (n. perf. part.)
  PRES. STEM i:-
  PERF. STEM i:- or i:v-
  PART. STEM it-

         INDICATIVE        SUBJUNCTIVE       IMPERATIVE
         SING.  PLUR.
  Pres.  eo:    i:mus      eam               _2d Pers._ i:     i:te
         i:s    i:tis
         it     eunt
  Impf.  i:bam             i:rem
  _Fut.  i:bo:              ----             _2d Pers._ i:to:   i:to:te
                                             _3d Pers._ i:to:   eunto:
  Perf.  ii: (i:vi:)       ierim (i:verim)
  Plup.  ieram (i:veram)   i:ssem (i:vissem)
  F. P.  iero: (i:vero:)

  INFINITIVE
  Pres.  i:re
  Perf.  i:sse (i:visse)
  Fut.   itu:rus, -a, -um   esse

  PARTICIPLES
  Pres.  ie:ns, _gen._ euntis (Sec. 472)
  Fut.   itu:rus, -a, -um
  Ger.   eundum

  GERUND
  Gen.   eundi:
  Dat.   eundo:
  Acc.   eundum
  Abl.   eundo:

  SUPINE
  Acc.   [[itum]]
  Abl.   [[itu:]] ]

_413._ Learn the meaning and principal parts of the following compounds
of /eo:\ with prepositions:

  ad'eo:, adi:'re, ad'ii:, ad'itus, _go to, visit_, with the accusative
  ex'eo:, exi:'re, ex'ii:, ex'itus, _go forth_, with /ex\ or /de\
    and the ablative of the place from which
  in'eo:, ini:'re, in'ii:, in'itus, _begin, enter upon_,
    with the accusative
  red'eo:, redi:'re, red'ii:, red'itus, _return_, with /ad\ or /in\ and
    the accusative of the place to which
  tra:ns'eo:, tra:nsi:'re, tra:ns'ii:, tra:ns'itus, _cross_,
    with the accusative

_414._ Indirect Statements in English. Direct statements are those
which the speaker or writer makes himself or which are quoted in his
exact language. Indirect statements are those reported in a different
form of words from that used by the speaker or writer. Compare the
following direct and indirect statements:

                      { 1. The Gauls are brave
  Direct statements   { 2. The Gauls were brave
                      { 3. The Gauls will be brave

  Indirect statements { 1. _He says_ that the Gauls _are_ brave
    after a verb in   { 2. _He says_ that the Gauls _were_ brave
    the present tense { 3. _He says_ that the Gauls _will be_ brave

  Indirect statements { 1. _He said_ that the Gauls _were_ brave
    after a verb in   { 2. _He said_ that the Gauls _had been_ brave
    a past tense      { 3. _He said_ that the Gauls _would be_ brave

We see that in English

    _a._ The indirect statement forms a clause introduced by the
    conjunction _that_.

    _b._ The verb is finite (cf. Sec. 173) and its subject is in the
    nominative.

    _c._ The tenses of the verbs originally used are changed after the
    past tense, _He said._

_415._ Indirect Statements in Latin. In Latin the direct and indirect
statements above would be as follows:

    DIRECT   { 1. Galli sunt fortes
  STATEMENTS { 2. Galli erant fortes
             { 3. Galli erunt fortes


             { 1. /Dicit\ or /Dixit Gallos esse fortis\
             {    (_He says_ or _He said_
             {     _the Gauls to be brave_)[1]
   INDIRECT  { 2. /Dicit\ or /Dixit Gallos fuisse fortis\
  STATEMENTS {    (_He says_ or _He said_
             {     _the Gauls to have been brave_)[1]
             { 3. /Dicit\ or /Dixit Gallos futuros esse fortis\
             {    (_He says_ or _He said_
             {     _the Gauls to be about to be brave_)[1]

    [Footnote 1: These parenthetical renderings are not inserted as
    translations, but merely to show the literal meaning of the Latin.]

Comparing these Latin indirect statements with the English in the
preceding section, we observe three marked differences:

    _a._ There is no conjunction corresponding to _that_.

    _b._ The verb is in the infinitive and its subject is in the
    accusative.

    _c._ The tenses of the infinitive are not changed after a past tense
    of the principal verb.

_416._ RULE. Indirect Statements. _When a direct statement becomes
indirect, the principal verb is changed to the infinitive and its
subject nominative becomes subject accusative of the infinitive._

_417._ Tenses of the Infinitive. When the sentences in Sec. 415 were
changed from the direct to the indirect form of statement, /sunt\ became
/esse\, /erant\ became /fuisse\, and /erunt\ became /futuros esse\.

_418._ RULE. Infinitive Tenses in Indirect Statements. _A present
indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the
indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future
indicative becomes future infinitive._

NOTE. When translating into Latin an English indirect statement, first
decide what tense of the indicative would have been used in the direct
form. That will show you what tense of the infinitive to use in the
indirect.

_419._ RULE. Verbs followed by Indirect Statements. _The
accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect statements is found
after verbs of /saying\, /telling\, /knowing\, /thinking\, and
/perceiving\._

_420._ Verbs regularly followed by indirect statements are:

  _a_. Verbs of saying and telling:
    dico, dicere, dixi, dictus, _say_
    nego, negare, negavi, negatus, _deny, say not_
    nuntio, nuntiare, nuntiavi, nuntiatus, _announce_
    respondeo, respondere, respondi, responsus, _reply_

  _b_. Verbs of knowing:
    cognosco, cognoscere, cognovi, cognitus, _learn_,
      (in the perf.) _know_
    scio, scire, scivi, scitus, _know_

  _c_. Verbs of thinking:
    arbitror, arbitrari, arbitratus sum, _think, consider_
    existimo, existimare, existimavi, existimatus, _think, believe_
    iudico, iudicare, iudicavi, iudicatus, _judge, decide_
    puto, putare, putavi, putatus, _reckon, think_
    spero, sperare, speravi, speratus, _hope_

  _d_. Verbs of perceiving:
    audio, audire, audivi, auditus, _hear_
    sentio, sentire, sensi, sensus, _feel, perceive_
    video, videre, vidi, visus, _see_
    intellego, intellegere, intellexi, intellectus, _understand,
      perceive_

Learn such of these verbs as are new to you.

_421._ IDIOMS
  postridie eius diei, _on the next day_
    (lit. _on the next day of that day_)
  inita aestate, _at the beginning of summer_
  memoria tenere, _to remember_ (lit. _to hold by memory_)
  per exploratores cognoscere, _to learn through scouts_

_422._ EXERCISES

I. 1. It, imus, ite, ire. 2. Eunti, iisse _or_ isse, ibunt, eunt.
3. Eundi, ut eant, ibitis, is. 4. Ne irent, i, ibant, ierat. 5. Caesar
per exploratores cognovit Gallos flumen transisse. 6. Romani audiverunt
Helvetios inita aestate de finibus suis exituros esse. 7. Legati
responderunt neminem ante Caesarem illam insulam adisse. 8. Principes
Gallorum dicunt se nullum consilium contra Caesaris imperium inituros
esse. 9. Arbitramur potentiam reginae esse maiorem quam civium.
10. Romani negant se libertatem Gallis erepturos esse. 11. His rebus
cognitis sensimus legatos non venisse ad pacem petendam. 12. Helvetii
sciunt Romanos priores victorias memoria tenere. 13. Socii cum
intellegerent multos vulnerari, statuerunt in suos finis redire.
14. Aliquis nuntiavit Marcum consulem creatum esse.

II. 1. The boy is slow. He says that the boy is, was, (and) will be
slow. 2. The horse is, has been, (and) will be strong. He judged that
the horse was, had been, (and) would be strong. 3. We think that the
army will go forth from the camp at the beginning of summer. 4. The next
day we learned through scouts that the enemy's town was ten miles
off.[2] 5. The king replied that the ornaments belonged to[3] the queen.

    [Footnote 2: _to be off, to be distant_, /abesse\.]

    [Footnote 3: Latin, _were of_ (Sec. 409).]

  [Illustration: TUBA]


LESSON LXXIII

VOCABULARY REVIEW : THE IRREGULAR VERB _FERO:_
THE DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS

_423._ Review the word lists in Secs. 513, 514.

_424._ Learn the principal parts and conjugation of the verb /fero:\,
_bear_ (Sec. 498).

  1. Learn the principal parts and meanings of the following compounds
  of fero:, _bear_:

  ad'fero:, adfer're, at'tuli:, adla:'tus, _bring to; report_
  co:n'fero:, co:nfer're, con'tuli:, conla:'tus, _bring together,
    collect_
  de'fero:, defer're, de'tuli:, dela:'tus, _bring to; report;
    grant, confer_
  i:n'fero:, i:nfer're, in'tuli:, inla:'tus, _bring in, bring against_
  re'fero:, refer're, ret'tuli:, rela:'tus, _bear back, report_

[ Conjugation given in Sec. 498:

  PRINCIPAL PARTS fero:, ferre, tuli:, la:tus
  PRES. STEM  fer-    PERF. STEM  tul-    PART. STEM  la:t-

         INDICATIVE
         ACTIVE                    PASSIVE
  Pres.  fero:     ferimus         feror        ferimur
         fers      ferti:s         ferris, -re  ferimimi:
         fert      ferunt          fertur       feruntur
  Impf.  fere:bam                  fere:bar
  Fut.   feram, fere:s, etc.       ferar, fere:ris, etc.
  Perf.  tuli:                     la:tus, -a, -um sum
  Plup.  tuleram                   la:tus, -a, -um eram
  F. P.  tulero:                   la:tus, -a, -um ero:

  SUBJUNCTIVE
  Pres.  feram, fera:s, etc.       ferar, fera:ris, etc.
  Impf.  ferrem                    ferrer
  Perf.  tulerim                   la:tus, -a, -um sim
  Plup.  tulissem                  la:tus, -a, -um essem

  IMPERATIVE
  Pres. 2d Pers.  fer      ferte      ferre    ferimini:
  Fut. 2d Pers.   ferto:   ferto:te   fertor
       3d Pers.   ferto:   ferunto    fertor   feruntor

  INFINITIVE
  Pres.  ferre                     ferri:
  Perf.  tulisse                   la:tus, -a, -um esse
  Fut.   la:tu:rus, -a, -um esse     ----

  PARTICIPLES
  Pres.  fere:ns, -entis           Pres.  ----
  Fut.   la:tu:rus, -a, -um        Ger.  ferendus, -a, -um
  Perf.  ----                      Perf.  la:tus, -a, -um

  GERUND
  Gen.  ferendi:
  Dat.  ferendo:
  Acc.  ferendum
  Abl.  ferendo:

  SUPINE (Active Voice)
  Acc.  [[la:tum]]
  Abl.  [[la:tu:]] ]

_425._ The dative is the case of the indirect object. Many intransitive
verbs take an indirect object and are therefore used with the dative
(cf. Sec. 153). Transitive verbs take a direct object in the accusative;
but sometimes they have an indirect object or dative as well. _The whole
question, then, as to whether or not a verb takes the dative, defends
upon its capacity for governing an indirect object._ A number of verbs,
some transitive and some intransitive, which in their simple form would
not take an indirect object, when compounded with certain prepositions,
have a meaning which calls for an indirect object. Observe the following
sentences:

  1. Haec res exercitui magnam calamitatem attulit, _this circumstance
  brought great disaster to the army._

  2. Germani Gallis bellum inferunt, _the Germans make war upon the
  Gauls._

  3. Hae copiae proelio non intererant, _these troops did not take
  part in the battle._

  4. Equites fugientibus hostibus occurrunt, _the horsemen meet the
  fleeing enemy._

  5. Galba copiis filium praefecit, _Galba put his son in command of
  the troops._

In each sentence there is a dative, and in each a verb combined with a
preposition. In no case would the simple verb take the dative.

_426._ RULE. Dative with Compounds. _Some verbs compounded with /ad\,
/ante\, /con\, /de\, /in\, /inter\, /ob\, /post\, /prae\, /pro\, /sub\,
/super\, admit the dative of the indirect object. Transitive compounds
may take both an accusative and a dative._

NOTE 1. Among such verbs are[1]

  ad'fero, adfer're, at'tuli, adla'tus, _bring to; report_
  ad'sum, ades'se, ad'fui, adfutu'rus, _assist; be present_
  de'fero, defer're, de'tuli, delatus, _report; grant, confer_
  de'sum, dees'se, de'fui,----, _be wanting, be lacking_
  in'fero, infer're, in'tuli, inla'tus, _bring against, bring upon_
  inter'sum, interes'se, inter'fui, interfutu'rus, _take part in_
  occur'ro, occur'rere, occur'ri, occur'sus, _run against, meet_
  praefi'cio, praefi'cere, praefe'ci, praefec'tus, _appoint over,
    place in command of_
  prae'sum, praees'se, prae'fui, ----, _be over, be in command_

    [Footnote 1: But the accusative with /ad\ or /in\ is used with some
    of these, when the idea of _motion to_ or _against_ is strong.]

_427._ IDIOMS

  graviter or moleste ferre, _to be annoyed at, to be indignant at_,
    followed by the accusative and infinitive
  se conferre ad or in, with the accusative,
    _to betake one's self to_
  alicui bellum inferre, _to make war upon some one_
  pedem referre, _to retreat_ (lit. _to bear back the foot_)

_428._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Fer, ferent, ut ferant, ferunt. 2. Ferte, ut ferrent, tulisse,
tulerant. 3. Tulimus, ferens, latus esse, ferre. 4. Cum navigia insulae
adpropinquarent, barbari terrore commoti pedem referre conati sunt.
5. Galli moleste ferebant Romanos agros vastare. 6. Caesar sociis
imperavit ne finitimis suis bellum inferrent. 7. Exploratores, qui
Caesari occurrerunt, dixerunt exercitum hostium vulneribus defessum sese
in alium locum contulisse. 8. Hostes sciebant Romanos frumento egere et
hanc rem Caesari summum periculum adlaturam esse. 9. Impedimentis in
unum locum conlatis, aliqui militum flumen quod non longe aberat
transierunt. 10. Hos rex hortatus est ut oraculum adirent et res auditas
ad se referrent. 11. Quem imperator illi legioni praefecit? Publius illi
legioni pracerat. 12. Cum esset Caesar in citeriore Gallia, crebri ad
eum[2] rumores adferebantur litterisque quoque certior fiebat Gallos
obsides inter se dare.

II. 1. The Gauls will make war upon Caesar's allies. 2. We heard that
the Gauls would make war upon Caesar's allies. 3. Publius did not take
part in that battle. 4. We have been informed that Publius did not take
part in that battle. 5. The man who was in command of the cavalry was
wounded and began to retreat. 6. Caesar did not place you in command of
the cohort to bring[3] disaster upon the army.

    [Footnote 2: Observe that when /adfero\ denotes _motion to_, it is
    not followed by the dative; cf. footnote, p. 182.]

    [Footnote 3: Not the infinitive. (Cf. Sec. 352.)]


LESSON LXXIV

VOCABULARY REVIEW : THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS

_429._ Review the word lists in Secs. 517, 518.

_430._ When we report a statement instead of giving it directly, we
have an indirect statement. (Cf. Sec. 414.) So, if we report a question
instead of asking it directly, we have an indirect question.

  DIRECT QUESTION                  INDIRECT QUESTION
  _Who conquered the Gauls?      He asked who conquered the Gauls_

    _a._ An indirect question depends, usually as object, upon a verb of
    asking (as peto, postulo, quaero, rogo) or upon some verb or
    expression of saying or mental action. (Cf. Sec. 420.)

_431._ Compare the following direct and indirect questions:

  DIRECT  INDIRECT

  Quis Gallos vincit?    {  _a._ Rogat quis Gallos vincat
  _Who is conquering the_  {       _He asks who is conquering the_
    _Gauls?_               {       _Gauls_
                           {  _b._ Rogavit quis Gallos vinceret
                           {       _He asked who was conquering_
                           {       _the Gauls_

                           {  _a._ Rogat ubi sit Roma
  Ubi est Roma?          {       _He asks where Rome is_
  _Where is Rome?_         {  _b._ Rogavit ubi esset Roma
                           {        _He asked where Rome was_

                           {  _a._ Rogat num Caesar Gallos vicerit
                           {       _He asks whether Caesar conquered_
  Caesarne Gallos vicit? {       _the Gauls_
  _Did Caesar conquer the_  {  _b._ /Rogavit num Caesar Gallos
    _Gauls?_               {         vicisset
                           {       _He asked whether Caesar had_
                           {       _conquered the Gauls_

    _a._ The verb in a direct question is in the indicative mood, but
    the mood is subjunctive in an indirect question.

    _b._ The tense of the subjunctive follows the rules for tense
    sequence.

    _c._ Indirect questions are introduced by the same interrogative
    words as introduce direct questions, excepting that_yes_-or-_no_
    direct questions (cf. Sec. 210) on becoming indirect are usually
    introduced by /num\, _whether_.

_432._ RULE. Indirect Questions. _In an indirect question the verb is
in the subjunctive and its tense is determined by the law for tense
sequence._

_433._ IDIOMS

  de tertia vigilia, _about the third watch_
  iniurias alicui inferre, _to inflict injuries upon some one_
  facere verba pro, with the ablative, _to speak in behalf of_
  in reliquum tempus, _for the future_

_434._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Rex rogavit quid legati postularent et cur ad se venissent.
2. Quaesivit quoque num nec recentis iniurias nec dubiam Romanorum
amicitiam memoria tenerent. 3. Videtisne quae oppida hostes
oppugnaverint? 4. Nonne scitis cur Galli sub montem sese contulerint?
5. Audivimus quas iniurias tibi Germani intulissent. 6. De tertia
vigilia imperator misit homines qui cognoscerent quae esset natura
montis. 7. Pro his orator verba fecit et rogavit cur consules navis
ad plenem summi periculi locum mittere vellent. 8. Legatis convocatis
demonstravit quid fieri vellet. 9. Nuntius referebat quid in Gallorum
concilio de armis tradendis dictum esset. 10. Moneo ne in reliquum
tempus pedites et equites trans flumen ducas.

II. 1. What hill did they seize? I see what hill they seized. 2. Who
has inflicted these injuries upon our dependents? 3. They asked who had
inflicted those injuries upon their dependents. 4. Whither did you go
about the third watch? You know whither I went. 5. At what time did the
boys return home? I will ask at what time the boys returned home.


LESSON LXXV

VOCABULARY REVIEW : THE DATIVE OF PURPOSE, OR END FOR WHICH

_435._ Review the word lists in Secs. 521, 522.

_436._ Observe the following sentences:

  1. Exploratores locum castris delegerunt, _the scouts chose a place
  for a camp._

  2. Hoc erat magno impedimento Gallis, _this was_ (for) _a great
  hindrance to the Gauls._

  3. Duas legiones praesidio castris reliquit, _he left two legions
  as_ (lit. _for_) _a guard to the camp._

In each of these sentences we find a dative expressing the _purpose
or end for which_ something is intended or for which it serves. These
datives are /castris\, /impedimento\, and /praesidio\. In the second and
third sentences we find a second dative expressing the _person or thing
affected_ (Gallis and castris). As you notice, these are true
datives, covering the relations of _for which_ and _to which_. (Cf.
Sec. 43.)

_437._ RULE. Dative of Purpose or End. _The dative is used to denote
the /purpose or end for which\, often with another dative denoting the
/person or thing affected\._

_438._ IDIOMS

  consilium omittere, _to give up a plan_
  locum castris deligere, _to choose a place for a camp_
  alicui magno usui esse, _to be of great advantage to some one_
    (lit. _for great advantage to some one_)

_439._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Rogavit cur illae copiae relictae essent. Responderunt illas
copias esse praesidio castris. 2. Caesar misit exploratores ad locum
deligendum castris. 3. Quisque existimavit ipsum nomen Caesaris magno
terrori barbaris futurum esse. 4. Prima luce idem exercitus proelium
acre commisit, sed gravia suorum vulnera magnae curae imperatori erant.
5. Rex respondit amicitiam populi Romani sibi ornamento et praesidio
debere esse. 6. Quis praeerat equitatui quem auxilio Caesari socii
miserant? 7. Aliquibus res secundae sunt summae calamitati et res
adversae sunt miro usui. 8. Gallis magno ad pugnam erat impedimento quod
equitatus a dextro cornu premebat. 9. Memoria pristinae virtutis non
minus quam metus hostium erat nostris magno usui. 10. Tam densa erat
silva ut progredi non possent.

II. 1. I advise you [1]to give up the plan [2]of making war upon the
brave Gauls. 2. Do you know [3]where the cavalry has chosen a place for
a camp? 3. The fear of the enemy will be of great advantage to you.
4. Caesar left three cohorts as (for) a guard to the baggage. 5. In
winter the waves of the lake are so great [4]that they are (for) a great
hindrance to ships. 6. Caesar inflicted severe[5] punishment on those
who burned the public buildings.

    [Footnote 1: Subjunctive of purpose. (Cf. Sec. 366.)]

    [Footnote 2: Express by the genitive of the gerundive.]

    [Footnote 3: Indirect question.]

    [Footnote 4: A clause of result.]

    [Footnote 5: /gravis, -e\.]


LESSON LXXVI

VOCABULARY REVIEW : THE GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE OF QUALITY OR DESCRIPTION

_440._ Review the word lists in Secs. 524, 525.

_441._ Observe the English sentences

  (1) _A man /of\ great courage_, or (2) _A man /with\ great courage_

  (3) _A forest /of\ tall trees_, or (4) _A forest /with\ tall trees_

Each of these sentences contains a phrase of quality or description.
In the first two a man is described; in the last two a forest. The
descriptive phrases are introduced by the prepositions _of_ and _with_.

In Latin the expression of quality or description is very similar.

The prepositions _of_ and _with_ suggest the genitive and the ablative
respectively, and we translate the sentences above

  (1) /Vir magnae virtutis\, or (2) /Vir magna virtute\
  (3) /Silva altarum arborum\, or (4) /Silva altis arboribus\

There is, however, one important difference between the Latin and the
English. In English we may say, for example, _a man of courage_, using
the descriptive phrase without an adjective modifier. _In Latin,
however, an adjective modifier must always be used_, as above.

    _a._ Latin makes a distinction between the use of the two cases in
    that _numerical descriptions of measure are in the genitive_ and
    _descriptions of physical characteristics are in the ablative._
    Other descriptive phrases may be in either case.

_442._ EXAMPLES

  1. Fossa duodecim pedum, _a ditch of twelve feet_.

  2. Homo magnis pedibus et parvo capite,
     _a man with big feet and a small head_.

  3. /Rex erat vir summa audacia\ or /rex erat vir summae audaciae\,
    _the king was a man of the greatest boldness_.

_443._ RULE. Genitive of Description. _Numerical descriptions of
measure are expressed by the genitive with a modifying adjective._

_444._ RULE. Ablative of Description. _Descriptions of physical
characteristics are expressed by the ablative with a modifying
adjective._

_445._ RULE. Genitive or Ablative of Description. _Descriptions
involving neither numerical statements nor physical characteristics may
be expressed by either the genitive or the ablative with a modifying
adjective._

_446._ IDIOMS

  Helvetiis in animo est, _the Helvetii intend_,
    (lit. _it is in mind to the Helvetians_)
  in matrimonium dare, _to give in marriage_
  nihil posse, _to have no power_
  fossam perducere, _to construct a ditch_
    (lit. _to lead a ditch through_)

_447._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Milites fossam decem pedum per eorum finis perduxerunt.
2. Princeps Helvetiorum, vir summae audaciae, principibus gentium
finitimarum sorores in matrimonium dedit. 3. Eorum amicitiam confirmare
voluit quo facilius Romanis bellum inferret. 4. Germani et Galli non
erant eiusdem gentis. 5. Omnes fere Germani erant magnis corporum
viribus.[1] 6. Galli qui oppidum fortiter defendebant saxa ingentis
magnitudinis de muro iaciebant. 7. Cum Caesar ab exploratoribus
quaereret qui illud oppidum incolerent, exploratores responderunt eos
esse homines summa virtute et magno consilio. 8. Moenia viginti pedum
a sinistra parte, et a dextra parte flumen magnae altitudinis oppidum
defendebant. 9. Cum Caesar in Galliam pervenisset, erat rumor Helvetiis
in animo esse iter per provinciam Romanam facere. 10. Caesar, ut eos ab
finibus Romanis prohiberet, munitionem [2]multa milia passuum longam
fecit.

II. 1. Caesar was a general of much wisdom and great boldness, and very
skillful in the art of war. 2. The Germans were of great size, and
thought that the Romans had no power. 3. Men of the highest courage
were left in the camp as (for) a guard to the baggage. 4. The king's
daughter, who was given in marriage to the chief of a neighboring state,
was a woman of very beautiful appearance. 5. The soldiers will construct
a ditch of nine feet around the camp. 6. A river of great width was
between us and the enemy.

    [Footnote 1: From /vis\. (Cf. Sec. 468.)]

    [Footnote 2: Genitives and ablatives of description are adjective
    phrases. When we use an _adverbial_ phrase to tell _how long_ or
    _how high_ or _how deep_ anything is, we must use the accusative
    of extent. (Cf. Sec. 336.) For example, in the sentence above
    /multa milia passuum\ is an adverbial phrase (accusative of
    extent) modifying /longam\. If we should omit /longam\ and say
    _a fortification of many miles_, the genitive of description
    (an adjective phrase) modifying /munitionem\ would be used, as
    /munitionem multorum milium passuum\.]

  [Illustration: GLADII]


LESSON LXXVII

REVIEW OF AGREEMENT, AND OF THE GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSATIVE

_448._ There are four agreements:

  1. That of the predicate noun or of the appositive with the noun to
  which it belongs (Secs. 76, 81).

  2. That of the adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle with its
  noun (Sec. 65).

  3. That of a verb with its subject (Sec. 28).

  4. That of a relative pronoun with its antecedent (Sec. 224).

_449._ The relation expressed by the /genitive\ is, in general, denoted
in English by the preposition _of_. It is used to express

                { _a._ As attributive (Sec. 38).
  1. Possession {
                { _b._ In the predicate (Sec. 409).

  2. The whole of which a part is taken (partitive genitive) (Sec. 331).

  3. Quality or description (Secs. 443, 445).

_450._ The relation expressed by the /dative\ is, in general, denoted in
English by the prepositions _to_ or _for_ when they do not imply motion
through space. It is used to express

                         { _a._ With intransitive verbs and with
                         {   transitive verbs in connection with a
                         {   direct object in the accusative (Sec. 45).
  1. The indirect object { _b_. With special intransitive verbs
                         {   (Sec. 154).
                         { _c_. With verbs compounded with /ad\, /ante\,
                         {   /con\, /de\, /in\, /inter\, /ob\, /post\,
                         {   /prae\, /pro\, /sub\, /super\ (Sec. 426).

  2. The object to which the quality of an adjective is directed
  (Sec. 143).

  3. The purpose, or end for which, often with a second dative denoting
  the person or thing affected (Sec. 437).

_451._ The /accusative\ case corresponds, in general, to the English
objective. It is used to express

  1. The direct object of a transitive verb (Sec. 37).

  2. The predicate accusative together with the direct object after
  verbs of _making, choosing, falling, showing_, and the like (Sec.
  392).

  3. The subject of the infinitive (Sec. 214).

  4. The object of prepositions that do not govern the ablative (Sec.
  340).

  5. The duration of time and the extent of space (Sec. 336).

  6. The place to which (Secs. 263, 266).

_452._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Milites quos vidimus dixerunt imperium belli esse Caesaris
imperatoris. 2. Helvetii statuerunt quam[1] maximum numerum equorum
et carrorum cogere. 3. Totius Galliae Helvetii plurimum valuerunt.
4. Multas horas acriter pugnatum est neque quisquam poterat videre
hostem fugientem. 5. Viri summae virtutis hostis decem milia passuum
insecuti sunt. 6. Caesar populo Romano persuasit ut se consulem crearet.
7. Victoria exercitus erat semper imperatori gratissima. 8. Triduum iter
fecerunt et Genavam, in oppidum[2] hostium, pervenerunt. 9. Caesar
audivit Germanos bellum Gallis intulisse. 10. Magno usui militibus
Caesaris erat quod prioribus proeliis sese exercuerant.

II. 1. One[3] of the king's sons and many of his men were captured.
2. There was no one who wished[4] to appoint her queen. 3. The grain
supply was always a care (for a care) to Caesar, the general. 4. I think
that the camp is ten miles distant. 5. We marched for three hours
through a very dense forest. 6. The plan [5]of making war upon the
allies was not pleasing to the king. 7. When he came to the hill he
fortified it [6]by a twelve-foot wall.

    [Footnote 1: What is the force of /quam\ with superlatives?]

    [Footnote 2: /urbs\ or /oppidum\, appositive to a name of a town,
    takes a preposition.]

    [Footnote 3: What construction is used with numerals in preference
    to the partitive genitive?]

    [Footnote 4: What mood? (Cf. Sec. 390.)]

    [Footnote 5: Use the gerund or gerundive.]

    [Footnote 6: Latin, _by a wall of twelve feet._]


LESSON LXXVIII

REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE

_453._ The relations of the ablative are, in general, expressed in
English by the prepositions _with_ (or _by_), _from_ (or _by_), and _in_
(or _at_). The constructions growing out of these meanings are

  I. Ablative rendered _with_ (or _by_):
    1. Cause (Sec. 102)
    2. Means (Sec. 103)
    3. Accompaniment (Sec. 104)
    4. Manner (Sec. 105)
    5. Measure of difference (Sec. 317)
    6. With a participle (ablative absolute) (Sec. 381)
    7. Description or quality (Secs. 444, 445)
    8. Specification (Sec. 398)

  II. Ablative rendered _from_ (or _by_):
    1. Place from which (Secs. 179, 264)
    2. Ablative of separation (Sec. 180)
    3. Personal agent with a passive verb (Sec. 181)
    4. Comparison without /quam\ (Sec. 309)

  III. Ablative rendered _in_ (or _at_):
    1. Place at or in which (Secs. 265, 266)
    2. Time when or within which (Sec. 275)

_454._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Galli locis superioribus occupatis itinere exercitum prohibere
conantur. 2. Omnes oppidani ex oppido egressi salutem fuga petere
inceperunt. 3. Caesar docet se militum vitam sua salute habere multo
cariorem. 4. Cum celerius omnium opinione pervenisset, hostes ad eum
obsides miserunt 5. Vicus in valle positus montibus altissimis undique
continetur. 6. Plurimum inter Gallos haec gens et virtute et hominum
numero valebat. 7. Secunda vigilia nullo certo ordine neque imperio e
castris egressi sunt. 8. Duabus legionibus Genavae relictis, proximo die
cum reliquis domum profectus est. 9. Erant itinera duo quibus itineribus
Helvetii domo exire possent. 10. Rex erat summa audacia et magna apud
populum potentia. 11. Galli timore servitutis commoti bellum parabant.
12. Caesar monet legatos ut contineant milites, ne studio pugnandi aut
spe praedae longius[1] progrediantur. 13. Bellum acerrimum a Caesare in
Gallos gestum est.

II. 1. The lieutenant after having seized the mountain restrained his
(men) from battle. 2. All the Gauls differ from each other in laws.
3. This tribe is much braver than the rest. 4. This road is [2]ten miles
shorter than that. 5. In summer Caesar carried on war in Gaul, in winter
he returned to Italy. 6. At midnight the general set out from the camp
with three legions. 7. I fear that you cannot protect[3] yourself from
these enemies. 8. [4]After this battle was finished peace was made by
all the Gauls.

    [Footnote 1: /longius\, _too far_. (Cf. Sec. 305.)]

    [Footnote 2: Latin, _by ten thousands of paces_.]

    [Footnote 3: /defendere\.]

    [Footnote 4: Ablative absolute.]


LESSON LXXIX

REVIEW OF THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE, THE INFINITIVE, AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE

_455._ The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive,
dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these
cases are in general the same as those of other nouns (Secs. 402,
406.1).

_456._ The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of
gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a
preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more
usual (Sec. 406.2).

_457._ The infinitive is used:

  I. As in English.

    _a._ As subject or predicate nominative (Sec. 216).

    _b._ To complete the predicate with verbs of incomplete predication
    (complementary infinitive) (Sec. 215).

    _c._ As object with subject accusative after verbs of _wishing,
    commanding, forbidding_, and the like (Sec. 213).

  II. In the principal sentence of an indirect statement after verbs
  of _saying _and _mental action_. The subject is in the accusative
  (Secs. 416, 418, 419).

_458._ The subjunctive is used:

  1. To denote purpose (Secs. 349, 366, 372).

  2. To denote consequence or result (Secs. 385, 386).

  3. In relative clauses of characteristic or description (Sec. 390).

  4. In /cum\ clauses of time, cause, and concession (Sec. 396).

  5. In indirect questions (Sec. 432).

_459._ EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar, cum pervenisset, milites hortabatur ne consilium oppidi
capiendi omitterent. 2. Rex, castris prope oppidum positis, misit
exploratores qui cognoscerent ubi exercitus Romanus esset. 3. Nemo
relinquebatur qui arma ferre posset. 4. Nuntii viderunt ingentem
armorum multitudinem de muro in fossani iactam esse. 5. Dux suos
transire flumen iussit. Transire autem hoc flumen erat difficillimum.
6. Romani cum hanc calamitatem moleste ferrant, tamen terga vertere
recusaverunt. 7. Hoc rumore audito, tantus terror omnium animos
occupavit ut ne fortissimi quidem proelium committere vellent. 8. Erant
qui putarent tempus anni idoneum non esse itineri faciendo. 9. Tam
acriter ab utraque parte pugnabatur ut multa milia hominum occiderentur.
10. Quid times? Timeo ne Romanis in animo sit totam Galliam superare et
nobis iniurias inferre.

II. 1. Do you not see who is standing on the wall? 2. We hear that the
plan of taking the town has been given up. 3. Since the Germans thought
that the Romans could not cross the Rhine, Caesar ordered a bridge to be
made. 4. When the bridge was finished, the savages were so terrified
that they hid themselves. 5. They feared that Caesar would pursue them.
6. Caesar [1]asked the traders what the size of the island was. 7. The
traders advised him not [2]to cross the sea. 8. He sent scouts [3]to
choose a place for a camp.

    [Footnote 1: /quaerere ab\.]

    [Footnote 2: Not infinitive.]

    [Footnote 3: Use the gerundive with /ad\.]




READING MATTER


INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS

/How to Translate.\ You have already had considerable practice in
translating simple Latin, and have learned that the guide to the meaning
lies in the endings of the words. If these are neglected, no skill can
make sense of the Latin. If they are carefully noted and accurately
translated, not many difficulties remain. Observe the following
suggestions:

  1. Read the Latin sentence through to the end, noting endings of
  nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.

  2. Read it again and see if any of the words you know are nominatives
  or accusatives. This will often give you what may be called the
  backbone of the sentence; that is, subject, verb, and object.

  3. Look up the words you do not know, and determine their use in the
  sentence from their endings.

  4. If you cannot yet translate the sentence, put down the English
  meanings of all the words _in the same order as the Latin words_. You
  will then generally see through the meaning of the sentence.

  5. Be careful to

    _a._ Translate adjectives with the nouns to which they belong.

    _b._ Translate together prepositions and the nouns which they
    govern.

    _c._ Translate adverbs with the words that they modify.

    _d._ _Make sense._ If you do not make sense, you have made a
    mistake. One mistake will spoil a whole sentence.

  6. When the sentence is correctly translated, read the Latin over
  again, and try to understand it as Latin, without thinking of the
  English translation.

/The Parts of a Sentence.\ You will now meet somewhat longer sentences
than you have had before. To assist in translating them, remember, first
of all, that every sentence conveys a meaning and either tells us
something, asks a question, or gives a command. Every sentence must have
a subject and a verb, and the verb may always have an adverb, and, if
transitive, will have a direct object.

However long a sentence is, you will usually be able to recognize its
subject, verb, and object or predicate complement without any
difficulty. These will give you the leading thought, and they must never
be lost sight of while making out the rest of the sentence. The chief
difficulty in translating arises from the fact that instead of a single
adjective, adverb, or noun, we often have a phrase or a clause taking
the place of one of these; for Latin, like English, has adjective,
adverbial, and substantive clauses and phrases. For example, in the
sentence _The idle boy does not study_, the word _idle_ is an adjective.
In _The boy wasting his time does not study_, the words _wasting his
time_ form an adjective phrase modifying _boy_. In the sentence _The boy
who wastes his time does not study_, the words _who wastes his time_
form an adjective clause modifying _boy_, and the sentence is complex.
These sentences would show the same structure in Latin.

In translating, it is important to keep the parts of a phrase and the
parts of a clause together and not let them become confused with the
principal sentence. To distinguish between the subordinate clauses and
the principal sentence is of the first importance, and is not difficult
if you remember that a clause regularly contains a word that marks it as
a clause and that this word usually stands first. These words join
clauses to the words they depend on, and are called _subordinate
conjunctions_. They are not very numerous, and you will soon learn to
recognize them. In Latin they are the equivalents for such words as
_when, while, since, because, if, before, after, though, in order that,
that_, etc. Form the habit of memorizing the Latin subordinate
conjunctions as you meet them, and of noting carefully the mood of the
verb in the clauses which they introduce.


  [Illustration: HERCULES]

THE LABORS OF HERCULES

  Hercules, a Greek hero celebrated for his great strength, was pursued
  throughout his life by the hatred of Juno. While yet an infant he
  strangled some serpents sent by the goddess to destroy him. During his
  boyhood and youth he performed various marvelous feats of strength,
  and on reaching manhood he succeeded in delivering the Thebans from
  the oppression of the Minyae. In a fit of madness, sent upon him by
  Juno, he slew his own children; and, on consulting the Delphic oracle
  as to how he should cleanse himself from this crime, he was ordered to
  submit himself for twelve years to Eurystheus, king of Tiryns, and to
  perform whatever tasks were appointed him. Hercules obeyed the oracle,
  and during the twelve years of his servitude accomplished twelve
  extraordinary feats known as the Labors of Hercules. His death was
  caused, unintentionally, by his wife Deiani'ra. Hercules had shot with
  his poisoned arrows a centaur named Nessus, who had insulted Deianira.
  Nessus, before he died, gave some of his blood to Deianira, and told
  her it would act as a charm to secure her husband's love. Some time
  after, Deianira, wishing to try the charm, soaked one of her husband's
  garments in the blood, not knowing that it was poisoned. Hercules put
  on the robe, and, after suffering terrible torments, died, or was
  carried off by his father Jupiter.


  [Illustration: HERCULES ET SERPENTES]

LIII.[1] THE INFANT HERCULES AND THE SERPENTS

Di[2] grave supplicium summit de malis, sed ii qui legibus[3] deorum
parent, etiam post mortem curantur. Illa vita dis[2] erat gratissima
quae hominibus miseris utilissima fuerat. Omnium autem praemiorum summum
erat immortalitas. Illud praemium Herculi datum est.

Herculis pater fuit Iuppiter, mater Alcmena, et omnium hominum
validissimus fuisse dicitur. Sed Iuno, regina deorum, eum, adhuc
infantem, interficere studebat; nam ei[1] et[2] Hercules et Alcmena
erant invisi. Itaque misit duas serpentis, utramque saevissimam, quae
media nocte domum[3] Alcmenae venerunt. Ibi Hercules, cum fratre suo,
non in lectulo sed in scuto ingenti dormiebat. Iam audaces serpentes
adpropinquaverant, iam scutum movebant. Tum frater, terrore commotus,
magna voce matrem vocavit, sed Hercules ipse, fortior quam frater,
statim ingentis serpentis manibus suis rapuit et interfecit.

    [Footnote 1: This number refers to the lesson after which the
    selection may be read.]

    [Footnote 2: /Di:\ and /di:s\ are from /deus\. Cf. Sec. 468.]

    [Footnote 3: /legibus\, Sec. 501.14.]

    [Footnote 1: /ei\, _to her_, referring to Juno.]

    [Footnote 2: /et ... et\, _both ... and_.]

    [Footnote 3: /domum\, Sec. 501.20.]


LIV. HERCULES CONQUERS THE MINYAE

Hercules a puero[1] corpus suum gravissimis et difficillimis laboribus
exercebat et hoc modo vires[2] suas confirmavit. Iam adulescens
Thebis[3] habitabat. Ibi Creon quidam erat rex. Minyae, gens
validissima, erant finitimi Thebanis, et, quia olim Thebanos vicerant,
quotannis legatos mittebant et vectigal postulabant. Hercules autem
constituit civis suos hoc vectigali liberare et dixit regi, "Da mihi
exercitum tuum et ego hos superbos hostis superabo." Hanc condicionem
rex non recusavit, et Hercules nuntios in omnis partis dimisit et copias
coegit.[4] Tum tempore opportunissimo proelium cum Minyis commisit. Diu
pugnatum est, sed denique illi impetum Thebanorum sustinere non
potuerunt et terga verterunt fugamque ceperunt.

    [Footnote 1: /a puero\, _from boyhood_.]

    [Footnote 2: /vires\, from /vis\. Cf. Sec. 468.]

    [Footnote 3: /Thebis\, Sec. 501.36.1.]

    [Footnote 4: /coegit\, from /cogo\.]


HE COMMITS A CRIME AND GOES TO THE DELPHIAN ORACLE TO SEEK EXPIATION

Post hoc proelium Creon rex, tanta victoria laetus, filiam suam Herculi
in matrimonium dedit. Thebis Hercules cum uxore sua diu vivebat et ab
omnibus magnopere amabatur; sed post multos annos subito [1]in furorem
incidit et ipse sua manu liberos suos interfecit. Post breve tempus
[2]ad sanitatem reductus tantum scelus expiare cupiebat et constituit ad
oraculum Delphicum iter facere. Hoc autem oraculum erat omnium
clarissimum. Ibi sedebat femina quaedam quae Pythia appellabatur. Ea
consilium dabat iis qui ad oraculum veniebant.

    [Footnote 1: /in furorem incidit\, _went mad_.]

    [Footnote 2: /ad sanitatem reductus\, lit. _led back to sanity_.
    What in good English?]


  [Illustration: HERCULES LEONEM SUPERAT]

LV. HERCULES BECOMES SUBJECT TO EURYSTHEUS[1] :
      HE STRANGLES THE NEME'AN LION

Itaque Hercules Pythiae totam rem demonstravit nec scelus suum abdidit.
Ubi iam Hercules finem fecit, Pythia iussit eum ad urbem Tiryntha[2]
discedere et ibi regi Eurystheo sese committere. Quae[3] ubi audivit,
Hercules ad illam urbem statim contendit et Eurystheo se in servitutem
tradidit et dixit, "Quid primum, O rex, me facere iubes?" Eurystheus,
qui perterrebatur vi et corpore ingenti Herculis et eum occidi[4]
studebat, ita respondit: "Audi, Hercules! Multa mira[5] narrantur de
leone saevissimo qui hoc tempore in valle Nemaea omnia vastat. Iubeo te,
virorum omnium fortissimum, illo monstro homines liberare." Haec verba
Herculi maxime placuerunt. "Properabo," inquit, "et parebo imperio[6]
tuo." Tum in silvas in quibus leo habitabat statim iter fecit. Mox feram
vidit et pluris impetus fecit; frustra tamen, quod neque sagittis neque
ullo alio telo monstrum vulnerare potuit. Denique Hercules saevum leonem
suis ingentibus bracchiis rapuit et faucis eius omnibus viribus
compressit. Hoc modo brevi tempore eum interfecit. Tum corpus leonis ad
oppidum in umeris reportavit et pellem postea pro[7] veste gerebat.
Omnes autem quo eam regionem incolebant, ubi famam de morte leonis
ingentis acceperunt, erant laetissimi et Herculem laudabant verbis
amplissimis.

    [Footnote 1: /Eu-rys'theus\ (pronounced _U-ris'thus_) was king of
    _Ti'ryns_, a Grecian city, whose foundation goes back to prehistoric
    times.]

    [Footnote 2: /Tiryntha\, the acc. case of /Tiryns\, a Greek noun.]

    [Footnote 3: /Quae\, obj. of /audivit\. It is placed first to make a
    close connection with the preceding sentence. This is called a
    connecting relative.]

    [Footnote 4: /occidi\, pres. pass. infin.]

    [Footnote 5: /mira\, _marvelous things_, the adj. being used as a
    noun. Cf. /omnia\, in the next line.]

    [Footnote 6: /imperio\, Sec. 501.14.]

    [Footnote 7: /pro\, _for, instead of_.]


LVI. SLAYING THE LERNE'AN HYDRA

Deinde Hercules ab Eurystheo iussus est Hydram occidere. Itaque cum
amico Iolao[1] contendit ad paludem Lernaeam ubi Hydra incolebat. Hoc
autem monstrum erat serpens ingens quae novem capita habebat. Mox is
monstrum repperit et summo[2] cum periculo collum eius sinistra manu
rapuit et tenuit. Tum dextra manu capita novem abscidere incepit, sed
frustra laborabat, quod quotiens hoc fecerat totiens alia nova capita
videbat. Quod[3] ubi vidit, statuit capita igni cremare. Hoc modo octo
capita delevit, sed extremum caput vulnerari non potuit, quod erat
immortale. Itaque illud sub ingenti saxo Hercules posuit et ita
victoriam reportavit.

    [Footnote 1: /Iolao\, abl. of _I-o-la'us_, the hero's best friend.]

    [Footnote 2: Note the emphatic position of this adjective.]

    [Footnote 3: /Quod ubi\, _when he saw this_, another instance of the
    connecting relative. Cf. p. 199, l. 3.]


LVII. THE ARCADIAN STAG AND THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR

Postquam Eurystheo mors Hydrae nuntiata est, summus terror animum eius
occupavit. Itaque iussit Herculem capere et ad se reportare cervum
quendam; nam minime cupivit tantum virum in regno suo tenere. Hie autem
cervus dicebatur aurea cornua et pedes multo[1] celeriores vento[2]
habere. Primum Hercules vestigia animalis petivit, deinde, ubi cervum
ipsum vidit, omnibus viribus currere incepit. Per plurimos dies
contendit nec noctu cessavit. Denique postquam per totum annum
cucurrerat--ita dicitur--cervum iam defessum cepit et ad Eurystheum
portavit.

Tum vero iussus est Hercules aprum quendam capere qui illo tempore agros
Erymanthios vastabat et homines illius loci magnopere perterrebat.
Hercules laete negotium suscepit et in Arcadiam celeriter se recepit.
Ibi mox aprum repperit. Ille autem; simul atque Herculem vidit, statim
quam[3] celerrime fugit et metu perterritus in fossam altam sese
abdidit. Hercules tamen summa cum difficultate eum extraxit, nec aper
ullo modo sese liberare potuit, et vivus ad Eurystheum portatus est.

    [Footnote 1: /multo\, Sec. 501.27.]

    [Footnote 2: /vento\, Sec. 501.34.]

    [Footnote 3: /quam\. What is the force of /quam\ with a
    superlative?]


LVIII. HERCULES CLEANS THE AUGE'AN STABLES AND KILLS THE
  STYMPHALIAN BIRDS

Deinde Eurystheus Herculi hunc laborem multo graviorem imperavit.
Augeas[1] quidam, qui illo tempore regnum Elidis[2] obtinebat, tria
milia boum[3] habebat. Hi[4] ingenti stabulo continebantur. Hoc
stabulum, quod per triginta annos non purgatum erat, Hercules intra
spatium unius diei purgare iussus est. llle negotium alacriter suscepit,
et primum labore gravissimo maximam fossam fodit per quam fluminis aquam
de montibus ad murum stabuli duxit. Tum partem parvam muri delevit et
aquam in stabulum immisit. Hoc modo finm operis fecit uno die facillime.

Post paucos dies Hercules ad oppidum Stymphalum iter fecit; nam
Eurystheus iusserat eum avis Stymphalides occidere. Hae aves rostra
ferrea habebant et homines miseros devorabant. Ille, postquam ad locum
pervenit, lacum vidit in quo aves incolebant. Nullo tamen modo Hercules
avibus adpropinquare potuit; lacus enim non ex aqua sed e limo
constitit.[5] Denique autem aves [6]de aliqua causa perterritae in auras
volaverunt et magna pars earum sagittis Herculis occisa est.

    [Footnote 1: /Augeas\, pronounced in English _Aw-je'as_.]

    [Footnote 2: /Elidis\, gen. case of /Elis\, a district of Greece.]

    [Footnote 3: /boum\, gen. plur. of /bo:s\. For construction see
    Sec. 501.11.]

    [Footnote 4: /ingenti stabulo\, abl. of means, but in our idiom we
    should say _in a huge stable_.]

    [Footnote 5: /constitit\, from /consto\.]

    [Footnote 6: /de aliqua causa perterritae\, _frightened for some
    reason_.]


  [Illustration: HERCULES ET TAURUS]

LIX. HERCULES CAPTURES THE CRETAN BULL AND CARRIES HIM LIVING TO
EURYSTHEUS

Tum Eurystheus iussit Herculem portare vivum ex insula Creta taurum
quendam saevissimum. Ille igitur navem conscendit--nam ventus erat
idoneus--atque statim solvit. Postquam triduum navigavit, incolumis
insulae adpropinquavit. Deinde, postquam omnia parata sunt, contendit ad
eam regionem quam taurus vexabat. Mox taurum vidit ac sine ullo metu
cornua eius corripuit. Tum ingenti labore monstrum ad navem traxit atque
cum hac praeda ex insula discessit.


THE FLESH-EATING HORSES OF DIOME'DES

Postquam ex insula Creta domum pervenit, Hercules ab Eurystheo in
Thraciam missus est. Ibi Diomedes quidam, vir saevissimus, regnum
obtinebat et omnis a finibus suis prohibebat. Hercules iussus erat equos
Diomedis rapere et ad Eurystheum ducere. Hi autem equi homines
miserrimos devorabant de quibus rex supplicium sumere cupiebat. Hercules
ubi pervenit, primum equos a rege postulavit, sed rex eos dedere
recusavit. Deinde ille ira commotus regem occidit et corpus eius equis
tradidit. Itaque is qui antea multos necaverat, ipse eodem supplicio
necatus est. Et equi, nuper saevissima animalia, postquam domini sui
corpus devoraverunt, mansueti erant.


LX. THE BELT OF HIPPOL'YTE, QUEEN OF THE AMAZONS

Gens Amazonum[1] dicitur[2] omnino ex mulieribus fuisse. Hae cum viris
proelium committere non verebantur. Hippolyte, Amazonum regina, balteum
habuit pulcherrimum. Hunc balteum possidere filia Eurysthei vehementer
cupiebat. Itaque Eurystheus iussit Herculem impetum in Amazones facere.
Ille multis cum copiis navem conscendit et paucis diebus in Amazonum
finis pervenit, ac balteum postulavit. Eum tradere ipsa Hipporyte quidem
cupivit; reliquis tamen Amazonibus[3] persuadere non potuit. Postridie
Hercules proelium commisit. Multas horas utrimque quam fortissime
pugnatum est Denique tamen mulieres terga verterunt et fuga salutem
petierunt. Multae autem captae sunt, in quo numero erat ipsa Hippolyte.
Hercules postquam balteum accepit, omnibus captivis libertatem dedit.

    [Footnote 1: A fabled tribe of warlike women living in Asia Minor.]

    [Footnote 2: /omnino\, etc., _to have consisted entirely of women._]

    [Footnote 3: /Amazonibus\, Sec. 501.14.]


  [Illustration: HERCULES ET CERBERUS]

THE DESCENT TO HADES AND THE DOG CER'BERUS

Iamque unus modo e duodecim laboribus relinquebatur sed inter omnis hic
erat difficillimus. Iussus est enim canem Cerberum[4] ex Orco in lucem
trahere. Ex Orco autem nemo antea reverterat. Praeterea Cerberus erat
monstrum maxime horribile et tria capita habebat. Hercules postquam
imperia Eurysthei accepit, statim profectus est et in Orcum descendit.
Ibi vero non sine summo periculo Cerberum manibus rapuit et ingenti cum
labore ex Orco in lucem et adurbem Eurysthei traxit.

Sic duodecim labores illi[5] intra duodecim annos confecti sunt. Demum
post longam vitam Hercules a deis receptus est et Iuppiter filio suo
dedit immortalitatem.

    [Footnote 4: The dog Cerberus guarded the gate of Orcus, the abode
    of the dead.]

    [Footnote 5: /illi\, _those famous._]


  [Illustration: PUERI ROMANI]

P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY[1]

LXI. PUBLIUS IS BORN NEAR POMPE'II

P. Cornelius Lentulus,[2] adulescens Romanus, amplissima familia[3]
natus est; nam pater eius, Marcus, erat dux peritissimus, cuius
virtute[4] et consilio multae victoriae reportatae erant; atque mater
eius, lulia, a clarissimis maioribus orta est. Non vero in urbe sed
ruri[5] Publius natus est, et cum matre habitabat in villa quae in maris
litore et sub radicibus magni montis sita erat. Mons autem erat Vesuvius
et parva urbs Pompeii octo milia[6] passuum[7] aberat. In Italia antiqua
erant plurimae quidem villae et pulchrae, sed inter has omnis nulla erat
pulchrior quam villa Marci Iuliaeque. Frons villae muro a maris
fluctibus muniebatur. Hinc mare et litora et insulae longe lateque
conspici[8] ac saepe naves longae et onerariae poterant. A tergo et ab
utroque latere agri feracissimi patebant. Undique erat magna variorum
florum copia et multa ingentium arborum genera quae aestate[9] umbram
defessis agricolis gratissimam adferebant. Praeterea erant[10] in agris
stabulisque multa animalium genera, non solum equi et boves sed etiam
rarae aves. Etiam erat[10] magna piscina plena piscium; nam Romani
piscis diligenter colebant.

    [Footnote 1: This story is fiction with certain historical facts in
    Caesar's career as a setting. However, the events chronicled might
    have happened, and no doubt did happen to many a Roman youth.]

    [Footnote 2: A Roman had three names, as, /Publius\ (given name),
    /Cornelius\ (name of the _gens_ or clan), /Lentulus\ (family name).]

    [Footnote 3: Abl. of source, which is akin to the abl. of
    separation (Sec. 501.32).]

    [Footnote 4: /virtute\, Sec. 501.24.]

    [Footnote 5: /ruri\, Sec. 501.36.1.]

    [Footnote 6: /milia\, Sec. 501.21.]

    [Footnote 7: /passuum\, Sec. 501.11.]

    [Footnote 8: /conspici\, infin. with poterant, Sec. 215. Consult the
    map of Italy for the approximate location of the villa.]

    [Footnote 9: /aestate\, Sec. 501.35.]

    [Footnote 10: How are the forms of /sum\ translated when they
    precede the subject?]


  [Illustration: CASA ROMANA]

LXII. HIS LIFE ON THE FARM

Huius villae Davus, servus Marci, est vilicus[1] et cum Lesbia uxore
omnia curat. Vilicus et uxor in casa humili, mediis in agris sita,
habitant. A prima luce usque ad vesperum se[2] gravibus laboribus
exercent ut omni res bene gerant.[3] Plurima enim sunt officia Davi et
Lesbiae. Vilicus servos regit ne tardi sint[3]; mittit alios qui agros
arent,[3] alios qui hortos inrigent,[3] et opera in[4] totum diem
imponit. Lesbia autem omnibus vestimenta parat, cibum coquit, panem
facit.

Non longe ab horum casa et in summo colle situm surgebat domicilium
ipsius domini dominaeque amplissimum. Ibi pluris annos[5] Publius cum
matre vitam felicem agebat; nam pater eius, Marcus, in terris longinquis
gravia rei publicae bella gerebat nec domum[6] reverti poterat. Neque
puero quidem molestum est ruri[7] vivere. Eum multae res delectant.
Magnopere amat silvas, agros, equos, boves, gallinas, avis, reliquaque
animalia. Saepe pluris horas[8] ad mare sedet quo[9] melius fluctus et
navis spectet. Nec omnino sine comitibus erat, quod Lydia, Davi filia,
quae erat eiusdem aetatis, cum eo adhuc infante ludebat, inter quos cum
annis amicitia crescebat. Lydia nullum alium ducem deligebat et Publius
ab puellae latere raro discedebat. Itaque sub claro Italiae sole Publius
et Lydia, amici fidelissimi, per campos collisque cotidie vagabantur.
Modo in silva finitima ludebant ubi Publius sagittis[10] celeribus avis
deiciebat et Lydia coronis variorum florum comas suas ornabat; modo
aquam et cibum portabant ad Davum servosque defessos qui agros colebant:
modo in casa parva aut horas lactas in ludo consumebant aut auxilium
dabant Lesbiae, quae cibum viro et servis parabat vel alias res
domesticas agebat.

    [Footnote 1: The /vilicus\ was a slave who acted as overseer of a
    farm. He directed the farming operations and the sale of the
    produce.]

    [Footnote 2: /se\, reflexive pron., object of /exercent\.]

    [Footnote 3: For the construction, see Sec. 501.40.]

    [Footnote 4: /in\, _for_.]

    [Footnote 5: /annos\, Sec. 501.21.]

    [Footnote 6: /domum\, Sec. 501.20.]

    [Footnote 7: /ruri\, Sec. 501.36.1.]

    [Footnote 8: /horas\, cf. /annos\, line 17.]

    [Footnote 9: /quo ... spectet\, Secs. 349, 350.]

    [Footnote 10: /sagittis\, Sec. 501.24.]


LXIII. MARCUS LENTULUS, THE FATHER OF PUBLIUS, IS SHIPWRECKED :
JULIA RECEIVES A LETTER FROM HIM

Iam Publius[1] decem annos habebat cum M. Cornelius Lentulus, pater
eius, qui quinque annos[2] grave bellum in Asia gerebat, non sine gloria
domum[3] revertebatur. Namque multa secunda proelia fecerat, maximas
hostium copias deleverat, multas urbis populo[4] Romano inimicas
ceperat. Primum nuntius pervenit qui a Lentulo[5] missus erat[6] ut
profectionem suam nuntiaret. Deinde pluris dies[7] reditum viri optimi
mater filiusque exspectabant et animis[8] sollicitis deos immortalis
frustra colebant. Tum demum has litteras summo cum gaudio acceperunt:

[9]"Marcus Iuliae suac salutem dicit. Si vales, bene est; ego valeo. Ex
Graecia, quo[10] praeter spem et opinionem hodie perveni, has litteras
ad te scribo. Namque navis nostra fracta est; nos autem--[11]dis est
gratia--incolumes sumus. Ex Asiae[12] portu navem leni vento solvimus.
Postquam[13] altum mare tenuimus [14]nec iam ullae terrae apparuerunt,
caelum undique et undique fluctus, subito magna tempestas coorta est et
navem vehementissime adflixit. Ventis fluctibusque adflictati[15] nec
solem discernere nec cursum tenere poteramus et omnia praesentem mortem
intentabant. Tris dies[16] et tris noctis[16] sine remis velisque
agimur. Quarto die[17] primum terra visa est et violenter in saxa, quae
non longe a litore aberant, deiecti sumus. Tum vero maiora pericula
timebamus; sed nauta quidam, vir fortissimus, ex nave in fluctus iratos
desiluit [18]ut funem ad litus portaret; quam rem summo labore vix
effecit. Ita omnes servati sumus. Gratias igitur et honorem Neptuno
debemus, qui deus nos e periculo eripuit. Nunc Athenis[19] sum, quo
confugi ut mihi paucas horas ad quietem darem.[20] Quam primum autem
aliam navem conducam ut iter ad Italiam reliquum conficiam et domum[21]
ad meos caros revertar. Saluta nostrum Publium amicissime et valetudinem
tuam cura diligenter. [22]Kalendis Martiis."

    [Footnote 1: _was ten years old_.]

    [Footnote 2: /annos\, Sec. 501.21.]

    [Footnote 3: /domum\, Sec. 501.20.]

    [Footnote 4: /populo\, dat. with inimicas, cf. Sec. 501.16.]

    [Footnote 5: /Lentulo\, Sec. 501.33.]

    [Footnote 6: /ut ... nuntiaret\, Sec. 501.40.]

    [Footnote 7: /dies\, cf. annos, 1. 9.]

    [Footnote 8: /animis\, abl. of manner. Do you see one in line 15?]

    [Footnote 9: This is the usual form for the beginning of a Latin
    letter. First we have the greeting, and then the expression Si
    vales, etc. The date of the letter is usually given at the end, and
    also the place of writing, if not previously mentioned in the
    letter.]

    [Footnote 10: /quo\, _where_.]

    [Footnote 11: /dis est gratia\, _thank God_, in our idiom.]

    [Footnote 12: Asia refers to the Roman province of that name in Asia
    Minor.]

    [Footnote 13: /altum mare tenuimus\, _we were well out to sea._]

    [Footnote 14: /nec iam\, _and no longer_.]

    [Footnote 15: /adflictati\, perf. passive part. _tossed about_.]

    [Footnote 16: What construction?]

    [Footnote 17: /die\, Sec. 501.35.]

    [Footnote 18: /ut ... portaret\, Sec. 501.40.]

    [Footnote 19: /Athenis\, Sec. 501.36.1.]

    [Footnote 20: /darem\, cf. /portaret\, l. 6.]

    [Footnote 21: Why not /ad domum\?]

    [Footnote 22: /Kalendis Martiis\, _the Calends_ or _first of March_;
    abl. of time, giving the date of the letter.]


LXIV. LENTULUS REACHES HOME : PUBLIUS VISITS POMPEII WITH HIS FATHER

Post paucos dies navis M. Corneli Lentuli portum Miseni[1] petiit, qui
portus non longe a Pompeiis situs est; quo in portu classis Romana
ponebatur et ad pugnas navalis ornabatur. Ibi naves omnium generum
conspici poterant. Iamque incredibili celeritate navis longa qua
Lentulus vehebatur litori adpropinquavit; nam non solum vento sed etiam
remis impellebatur. In alta puppe stabat gubernator et non procul aliqui
milites Romani cum armis splendidis, inter quos clarissimus erat
Lentulus. Deinde servi remis contendere cessaverunt[2]; nautae velum
contraxerunt et ancoras iecerunt. Lentulus statim e navi egressus est
et[3] ad villam suam properavit. Eum Iulia, Publius, totaque familia
exceperunt. [4]Qui complexus, quanta gaudia fuerunt!

Postridie eius diei Lentulus filio suo dixit, "Veni, mi Publi, mecum.
Pompeios iter hodie faciam. Mater tua suadet[5] ut fructus et cibaria
emam. Namque pluris amicos ad cenam vocavimus et multis rebus[6] egemus.
Ea hortatur ut quam primum proficiscamur." "Libenter, mi pater," inquit
Publius. "Tecum esse mihi semper est gratum; nec Pompeios umquam vidi.
Sine mora proficisci paratus sum." Tum celeriter currum conscenderunt et
ad urbis muros vecti sunt. Stabiana porta[7] urbem ingressi sunt.
Publius stratas vias miratur et saxa altiora quae in medio disposita
erant et altas orbitas quas rotae inter haec saxa fecerant. Etiam
strepitum miratur, multitudinem, carros, fontis, domos, tabernas,
forum[8] cum statuis, templis, reliquisque aedificiis publicis.

    [Footnote 1: Misenum had an excellent harbor, and under the emperor
    Augustus became the chief naval station of the Roman fleet. See map
    of Italy.]

    [Footnote 2: Why is the infinitive used with /cessaverunt\?]

    [Footnote 3: See Plate I, Frontispiece.]

    [Footnote 4: Observe that these words are exclamatory.]

    [Footnote 5: What construction follows /suadeo\? Sec. 501.41.]

    [Footnote 6: /rebus\, Sec. 501.32.]

    [Footnote 7: This is the abl. of the _way by which_ motion takes
    place, sometimes called the abl. of route. The construction comes
    under the general head of the abl. of means. For the scene here
    described, see Plate II, p. 53, and notice especially the
    stepping-stones for crossing the street (/saxa quae in medio
    disposita erant\).]

    [Footnote 8: The forum of Pompeii was surrounded by temples, public
    halls, and markets of various sorts. Locate Pompeii on the map.]


LXV. A DAY AT POMPEII

Apud forum e curru descenderunt et Lentulus dixit, "Hic sunt multa
tabernarum genera, mi Publi. Ecce, trans viam est popina! [1]Hoc genus
tabernarum cibaria vendit. Fructus quoque ante ianuam stant. Ibi cibaria
mea emam." "Optime," respondit Publius. "At ubi, mi pater, crustula
emere possumus? Namque mater nobis imperavit [2]ut haec quoque
pararemus. Timeo ut[3] ista popina vendat crustula." "Bene dicis,"
inquit Lentulus. "At nonne vides illum fontem a dextra ubi aqua per
leonis caput fluit? In illo ipso loco est taberna pistoris qui sine
dubio vendit crustula."

Brevi tempore[4] omnia erant parata, iamque [5]quinta hora erat. Deinde
Lentulus et filius ad cauponam properaverunt, quod fame[6] et siti[7]
urgebantur. Ibi sub arboris umbra sederunt et puero imperaverunt ut
sibi[8] cibum et vinum daret. Huic imperio[9] puer celeriter paruit. Tum
laeti se[10] ex labore refecerunt.

Post prandium prefecti sunt ut alia urbis spectacula viderent. Illo
tempore fuerunt Pompeiis[11] multa templa, duo theatra, thermae
magnumque amphitheatrum, quae omnia post paucos annos flammis atque
incendiis Vesuvi et terrae motu deleta sunt. Ante hanc calamitatem autem
homines [12]nihil de monte veriti sunt. In amphitheatro quidem Publius
morari cupivit ut spectacula gladiatoria videret, quae in[13] illum
ipsum diem proscripta erant et iam [14]re vera inceperant. Sed Lentulus
dixit, "Morari, Publi, [15]vereor ut possimus. Iam decima hora est et
via est longa. Tempus suadet ut quam primum domum revertamur." Itaque
servo imperavit ut equos iungeret, et solis occasu[16] ad villam
pervenerunt.

    [Footnote 1: We say, _this kind of shop_; Latin, _this kind of
    shops_.]

    [Footnote 2: /ut ... pararemus\, Sec. 501.41.]

    [Footnote 3: How is /ut\ translated after a verb of fearing? How
    /ne:\? Cf. Sec. 501.42.]

    [Footnote 4: /tempore\, Sec. 501.35.]

    [Footnote 5: /quinta hora\. The Romans numbered the hours of the day
    consecutively from sunrise to sunset, dividing the day, whether long
    or short, into twelve equal parts.]

    [Footnote 6: /fame\ shows a slight irregularity in that the abl.
    ending -e is long.]

    [Footnote 7: /sitis\, _thirst_, has -im in the acc. sing., -i in
    the abl. sing., and no plural.]

    [Footnote 8: Observe that the reflexive pronoun /sibi\ does not here
    refer to the subject of the subordinate clause in which it stands,
    but to the subject of the main clause. This so-called _indirect_ use
    of the reflexive is often found in object clauses of purpose.]

    [Footnote 9: What case? Cf. Sec. 501.14.]

    [Footnote 10: /se\, cf. p. 205, l. 7, and note.]

    [Footnote 11: /Pompeiis\, Sec. 501.36.1.]

    [Footnote 12: /nihil ... veriti sunt\, _had no fears of the
    mountain_.]

    [Footnote 13: /in\, _for_.]

    [Footnote 14: /re vera\, _in fact_.]

    [Footnote 15: /vereor ut\, Sec. 501.42.]

    [Footnote 16: /occasu\, Sec. 501.35.]


LXVI. LENTULUS ENGAGES A TUTOR FOR HIS SON

A primis annis quidem Iulia ipsa filium suum docuerat, et Publius non
solum [1]pure et Latine loqui poterat sed etiam commode legebat et
scribebat. Iam Ennium[2] aliosque poetas legerat. Nunc vero Publius
[3]duodecim annos habebat; itaque ei pater bonum magistrum, [4]virum
omni doctrina et virtute ornatissimum, paravit, [5]qui Graeca, musicam,
aliasque artis doceret. [6]Namque illis temporibus omnes fere gentes
Graece loquebantur. Cum Publio alii pueri, Lentuli amicorum filii,[7]
discebant. Nam saepe apud Romanos mos erat [8]non in ludum filios
mittere sed domi per magistrum docere. Cotidie discipuli cum magistro in
peristylo[9] Marci domus sedebant. Omnes pueri bullam auream, originis
honestae signum, in collo gerebant, et omnes toga praetexta amicti
erant, [10]quod nondum sedecim annos[11] nati sunt.

    [Footnote 1: /pure ... poterat\, freely, _could speak Latin well_.
    What is the literal translation?]

    [Footnote 2: /Ennium\, the father of Latin poetry.]

    [Footnote 3: /duodecim ... habebat\, cf. p. 206, l. 8, and note.]

    [Footnote 4: /virum\, etc., _a very well-educated and worthy man_.
    Observe the Latin equivalent.]

    [Footnote 5: /qui ... doceret\, a relative clause of purpose. Cf.
    Secs. 349, 350.]

    [Footnote 6: In Caesar's time Greek was spoken more widely in the
    Roman world than any other language.]

    [Footnote 7: /filii\, in apposition with /pueri\.]

    [Footnote 8: /non ... mittere\. This infinitive clause is the
    subject of /erat\. Cf. Sec. 216. The same construction is repeated
    in the next clause, /domi ... docere\. The object of /docere\ is
    /filios\ understood.]

    [Footnote 9: The peristyle was an open court surrounded by a
    colonnade.]

    [Footnote 10: At the age of sixteen a boy laid aside the _bulla_
    and the _toga praetexta_ and assumed _toga virilis_ or manly gown.]

    [Footnote 11: /annos\, Sec. 501.21. The expression /nondum sedecim
    annos nati sunt\ means literally, _they were born not yet sixteen
    years_. This is the usual expression for age. What is the English
    equivalent?]


  [Illustration: TABULA ET STILUS]

SCENE IN SCHOOL : AN EXERCISE IN COMPOSITION

DISCIPULI. Salve, magister.
MAGISTER. Vos quoque omnes, salvete. [1]Tabulasne portavistis et
  stilos?
D. Portavimus.
M. Iam fabulam Aesopi[2] discemus. Ego legam, vos in tabulis scribite.
  Et tu, Publi, da mihi e capsa[3] Aesopi volumen.[4] Iam audite
  omnes: _Vulpes et Uva_.
Vulpes olim fame coacta uvam dependentem vidit. Ad uvam saliebat,
  sumere conans. Frustra diu conata, tandem irata erat et salire
  cessans dixit: "Illa uva est acerba; acerbam uvam [5]nihil moror."
Omnia'ne scripsistis, pueri?
D. Omnia, magister.

    [Footnote 1: Tablets were thin boards of wood smeared with wax. The
    writing was done with a stylus, a pointed instrument like a pencil,
    made of bone or metal, with a knob at the other end. The knob was
    used to smooth over the wax in making erasures and corrections.]

    [Footnote 2: /Aesopi\, the famous Greek to whom are ascribed most of
    the fables current in the ancient world.]

    [Footnote 3: A cylindrical box for holding books and papers, shaped
    like a hatbox.]

    [Footnote 4: Ancient books were written on rolls made of papy'rus.]

    [Footnote 5: /nihil moror\, _I care nothing for_.]


LXVII. PUBLIUS GOES TO ROME TO FINISH HIS EDUCATION

Iamque Publius, [1]quindecim annos natus, [2]primis litterarum elementis
confectis, Romam petere voluit ut scholas grammaticorum et philosophorum
frequentaret. Et facillime patri[3] suo, qui ipse philosophiae studio
tenebatur, persuasit. Itaque [4]omnibus rebus ad profectionem
comparatis, pater filiusque equis animosis vecti[5] ad magnam urbem
profecti sunt. Eos proficiscentis Iulia totaque familia votis
precibusque prosecutae sunt. Tum per loca[6] plana et collis silvis
vestitos viam ingressi sunt ad Nolam, quod oppidum eos hospitio modico
excepit. Nolae[7] duas horas morati sunt, quod sol meridianus ardebat.
Tum recta via[8] circiter viginti milia[9] passuum[9] Capuam,[9] ad
insignem Campaniae urbem, contenderunt. Eo[10] multa nocte defessi
pervenerunt. [11]Postridie eius diei, somno et cibo recreati, Capua
discesserunt et [13]viam Appiam ingressi, quae Capuam tangit et usque ad
urbem Romam ducit, ante meridiem Sinuessam pervenerunt, quod oppidum
tangit mare. Inde prima luce proficiscentes Formias[13] properaverunt,
ubi Cicero, orator clarissimus, qui forte apud villam suam erat, eos
benigne excepit. Hinc [14]itinere viginti quinque milium passuum facto,
Tarracinam, oppidum in saxis altissimis situm, viderunt. Iamque non
longe aberant paludes magnae, quae multa milia passuum undique patent.
Per eas pedestris via est gravis et in nave viatores vehuntur. Itaque
[15]equis relictis Lentulus et Publius navem conscenderunt, et, una
nocte in transitu consumpta, Forum Appi venerunt. Tum brevi tempore
Aricia eos excepit. Hoc oppidum, in colle situm, ab urbe Roma sedecim
milia passuum abest. Inde declivis via usque ad latum campum ducit ubi
Roma stat. Quem ad locum ubi Publius venit et Romam adhuc remotam,
maximam totius orbis terrarum urbem, conspexit, summa admiratione et
gaudio adfectus est. Sine mora descenderunt, et, medio intervallo quam
celerrime superato, urbem porta Capena ingressi sunt.

    [Footnote 1: /quindecim\, etc., cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.]

    [Footnote 2: /primis ... confectis\, abl. abs. Cf. Sec. 501.28.]

    [Footnote 3: /patri\, dat. with /persuasit\.]

    [Footnote 4: /omnibus ... comparatis\, cf. note 2.]

    [Footnote 5: /vecti\, perf. pass. part. of /veho\.]

    [Footnote 6: What is there peculiar about the gender of this word?]

    [Footnote 7: /Nolae\, locative case, Sec. 501.36.2.]

    [Footnote 8: /via\, cf. /porta\, p. 208, l. 7, and note.]

    [Footnote 9: What construction?]

    [Footnote 10: /Eo\, adv. _there_.]

    [Footnote 11: /Postridie eius diei\, _on the next day_.]

    [Footnote 12: /viam Appiam\, the most famous of all Roman roads, the
    great highway from Rome to Tarentum and Brundisium, with numerous
    branches. Locate on the map the various towns that are mentioned in
    the lines that follow.]

    [Footnote 13: /Formias\, _Formiae_, one of the most beautiful spots
    on this coast, and a favorite site for the villas of rich Romans.]

    [Footnote 14: /itinere ... facto\, abl. abs. The gen. /milium\
    modifies /itinere\.]

    [Footnote 15: /equis relictis\. What construction? Point out a
    similar one in the next line.]


  [Illustration: BULLA]

LXVIII. PUBLIUS PUTS ON THE TOGA VIRILIS

Publius iam totum annum Romae morabatur[1] multaque urbis spectacula
viderat et multos sibi[2] amicos paraverat. Ei[3] omnes favebant; [4]de
eo omnes bene sperare poterant. Cotidie Publius scholas philosophorum et
grammaticorum tanto studio frequentabat [5]ut aliis clarum exemplum
praeberet. Saepe erat cum patre in curia[6]; quae res effecit [7]ut
summos rei publicae viros et audiret et videret. Ubi [8]sedecim annos
natus est, bullam[9] auream et togam praetextam more Romano deposuit
atque virilem togam sumpsit. Virilis autem toga erat omnino alba, sed
praetexta clavum purpureum in margine habebat. [10]Deponere togam
praetextam et sumere togam virilem erat res gratissima puero Romano,
quod postea vir et civis Romanus habebatur.

[11]His rebus gestis Lentulus ad uxorem suam has litteras scripsit:

[12]"Marcus Iuliae suae salutem dicit. Si vales, bene est; ego valeo.
Accepi tuas litteras. Has nunc Roma per servum fidelissimum mitto ut de
Publio nostro quam celerrime scias. Nam hodie ei togam virilem dedi.
Ante lucem surrexi[13] et primum bullam auream de collo eius removi. Hac
Laribus[14] consecrata et sacris factis, eum toga virili vestivi.
Interim plures amici cum multitudine optimorum civium et honestorum
clientium pervenerant [15]qui Publium domo in forum deducerent. Ibi in
civitatem receptus est et nomen, Publius Cornelius Lentulus, apud civis
Romanos ascriptum est. Omnes ei amicissimi fuerunt et magna[16] de eo
praedicunt. Sapientior enim aequalibus[17] est et magnum ingenium habet.
[18]Cura ut valeas."

    [Footnote 1: /morabatur\, translate as if pluperfect.]

    [Footnote 2: /sibi\, _for himself_.]

    [Footnote 3: /Ei\, why dat.?]

    [Footnote 4: /de ... poterant\, in English, _all regarded him as a
    very promising youth;_ but what does the Latin say?]

    [Footnote 5: /ut ... praeberet\, Sec. 501.43.]

    [Footnote 6: /curia\, a famous building near the Roman Forum.]

    [Footnote 7: /ut ... audiret et videret\, Sec. 501.44.]

    [Footnote 8: /sedecim, etc.\, cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.]

    [Footnote 9: /bullam\, cf. p. 210, l. 3, and note 4.]

    [Footnote 10: These infinitive clauses are the subject of /erat\.
    Cf. Sec. 216.]

    [Footnote 11: /His rebus gestis\, i.e. the assumption of the _toga
    virilis_ and attendant ceremonies.]

    [Footnote 12: Compare the beginning of this letter with the one on
    page 206.]

    [Footnote 13: /surrexi\, from /surgo\.]

    [Footnote 14: The Lares were the spirits of the ancestors, and were
    worshiped as household gods. All that the house contained was
    confided to their care, and sacrifices were made to them daily.]

    [Footnote 15: /qui ... deducerent\, Sec. 350.]

    [Footnote 16: /magna\, _great things_, a neuter adj. used as a
    noun.]

    [Footnote 17: /aequalibus\, Sec. 501.34.]

    [Footnote 18: /Cura ut valeas\, _take good care of your health_. How
    does the Latin express this idea?]


LXIX. PUBLIUS JOINS CAESAR'S ARMY IN GAUL

Publius iam adulescens postquam togam virilem sumpsit, aliis rebus
studere incepit et praesertim usu[1] armorum se[2] diligenter exercuit.
Magis magisque amavit illas artis quae militarem animum delectant.
Iamque erant [3]qui ei cursum militarem praedicerent. Nec sine causa,
quod certe patris isigne exemplum [4]ita multum trahebat. [5]Paucis ante
annis C. Iulius Caesar, ducum Romanorum maximus, consul creatus erat et
hoc tempore in Gallia bellum grave gerebat. Atque in exercitu eius
plures adulescentes militabant, apud quos erat amicus quidam Publi. Ille
Publium crebris litteris vehementer hortabatur [6]ut iter in Galliam
faceret. Neque Publius recusavit, et, multis amicis ad portam urbis
prosequentibus, ad Caesaris castra profectus est. Quarto die postquam
iter ingressus est, ad Alpis, montis altissimos, pervenit. His summa
difficultate superatis, tandem Gallorum in finibus erat. Primo autem
veritus est ut[7] castris Romanis adpropinquare posset, quod Galli,
maximis copiis coactis, Romanos obsidebant et vias omnis iam clauserant.
His rebus commotus Publius vestem Gallicam induit ne a Gallis caperetur,
et ita per hostium copias incolumis ad castra pervenire potuit. Intra
munitiones acceptus, a Caesare benigne exceptus est. Imperator fortem
adulescentem amplissimis verbis laudavit et eum [8]tribunum militum
creavit.

    [Footnote 1: Abl. of means.]

    [Footnote 2: /se\, reflexive object of /exercuit\.]

    [Footnote 3: /qui ... praedicerent\, Sec. 501.45.]

    [Footnote 4: /ita multum trahebat\, _had a great influence in that
    direction_.]

    [Footnote 5: /Paucis ante annis\, _a few years before_; in Latin,
    _before by a few years_, /ante\ being an adverb and /annis\ abl. of
    degree of difference.]

    [Footnote 6: /ut ... faceret\, Sec. 501.41.]

    [Footnote 7: /ut\, how translated here? See Sec. 501.42.]

    [Footnote 8: The _military tribune_ was a commissioned officer
    nearly corresponding to our rank of colonel. The tribunes were often
    inexperienced men, so Caesar did not allow them much responsibility.]


  [Illustration: IMPEDIMENTA]

HOW THE ROMANS MARCHED AND CAMPED

Exercitus qui in hostium finibus bellum genit multis pericuis
circumdatus est. [1]Quae pericula ut vitaret, Romani summam curam
adhibere solebant. Adpropinquantees copiis hostium agmen ita disponebant
[2]ut imperator ipse cum plaribus legionibus expeditis[3] primum agmen
duceret. Post eas copias impedimenta[4] totius exercitus conlocabant.
[5]Tum legiones quae proxime conscriptae erant totum agmen claudebant.
Equites quoque in omnis partis dimittebantur qui loca explorarent; et
centuriones praemittebantur ut locum castris idoneum deligerent. Locus
habebatur idoneus castris [6]qui facile defendi posset et prope aquam
esset. Qua de causa castra[7] in colle ab utraque parte arduo, a fronte
leniter declivi saepe ponebantur; vel locus paludibus cinctus vel in
fluminis ripis situs deligebatur. Ad locum postquam exercitus pervenit,
alii militum [8]in armis erant, alii castra munire incipiebant. Nam
[9]quo tutiores ab hostibus milites essent, neve incauti et imparati
opprimerentur, castra fossa lata et vallo alto muniebant. In castris
portae quattuor erant ut eruptio militum omnis in partis fieri posset.
In angulis castrorum erant turres de quibus tela in hostis
coniciebantur. [10]Talibus in castris qualia descripsimus Publius a
Caesare exceptus est.

    [Footnote 1: /Quae pericula\, object of /vitarent\. It is placed
    first to make a proper connection with the preceding sentence.]

    [Footnote 2: /ut ... duceret\, Sec. 501.43.]

    [Footnote 3: /expeditis\, i.e. without baggage and ready for
    action.]

    [Footnote 4: /impedimenta\. Much of the baggage was carried in carts
    and on beasts of burden, as is shown above; but, besides this, each
    soldier (unless /expeditus\) carried a heavy pack. See also picture,
    p. 159.]

    [Footnote 5: The newest legions were placed in the rear, because
    they were the least reliable.]

    [Footnote 6: /qui ... posset ... esset\, Sec. 501.45.]

    [Footnote 7: /castra\, subject of /ponebantur\.]

    [Footnote 8: /in armis erant\, _stood under arms_.]

    [Footnote 9: /quo ... essent\. When is /quo\ used to introduce a
    purpose clause? See Sec. 350.I.]

    [Footnote 10: /Talibus in castris qualia\, _in such a camp as_.
    It is important to remember the correlatives /talis ... qualis\,
    _such ... as_.]


  [Illustration: CENTURIO]

LXX. THE RIVAL CENTURIONS

Illis in castris erant duo centuriones,[1] fortissimi viri, T. Pullo et
L. Vorenus, quorum neuter alteri virtute[2] cedere volebat. Inter eos
iam multos annos infensum certamen gerebatur. Tum demum finis
controversiae hoc modo[3] factus est. Die tertio postquam Publius
pervenit, hostes, maioribus copiis coactis, acerrimum impetum in castra
fecerunt. Tum Pullo, [4]cum Romani tardiores[5] viderentur, "Cur
dubitas," inquit, "Vorene? Quam commodiorem occasionem exspectas? Hic
dies de virtute nostra iudicabit." Haec[6] cum dixisset, extra
munitiones processit et in eam hostium partem quae cofertissima
[7]videbatur inrupit. Neque Vorenus quidem tum vallo[8] sese continet,
sed Pullonem subsequitur. Tum Pullo pilum in hostis immittit atque unum
ex multitudine procurrentem traicit. Hunc percussum et exanimatum hostes
scutis protegunt et in Pullonem omnes tela coniciunt. Eius scutum
transfigitur et telum in balteo defigitur. Hic casus vaginam avertit et
dextram manum eius gladium educere conantis[9] moratur. Eum ita
impeditum hostes circumsistunt.

Tum vero [10]ei laboranti Vorenus, cum sit inimicus, tamen auxilium dat.
Ad hunc confestim [11]a Pullone omnis multitudo se convertit. Gladio
comminus pugnat Vorenus, atque, uno interfecto, reliquos paulum
propellit. Sed instans cupidius[12] infelix, [13]pede se fallente,
concidit.

Huic rursus circumvento auxilium dat Pullo, atque ambo incolumes,
pluribus interfectis, summa cum laude intra munitiones se recipiunt. Sic
inimicorum alter alteri auxilium dedit nec de eorum virtute quisquam
iudicare potuit.

    [Footnote 1: A centurion commanded a company of about sixty men. He
    was a common soldier who had been promoted from the ranks for his
    courage and fighting qualities. The centurions were the real leaders
    of the men in battle. There were sixty of them in a legion. The
    centurion in the picture (p. 216) has in his hand a staff with a
    crook at one end, the symbol of his authority.]

    [Footnote 2: /virtute\, Sec. 501.30.]

    [Footnote 3: Abl. of manner.]

    [Footnote 4: /cum ... viderentur\, Sec. 501.46.]

    [Footnote 5: /tardiores\, _too slow_, a not infrequent translation
    of the comparative degree.]

    [Footnote 6: /Haec\, obj. of /dixisset\. It is placed before /cum\
    to make a close connection with the preceding sentence. What is the
    construction of /dixisset\?]

    [Footnote 7: /videbatur, inrupit\. Why is the imperfect used in one
    case and the perfect in the other? Cf. Sec. 190.]

    [Footnote 8: /vallo\, abl. of means, but in English we should say
    _within the rampart_. Cf. /ingenti stabulo\, p. 201, l. 13, and
    note.]

    [Footnote 9: /conantis\, pres. part. agreeing with /eius\.]

    [Footnote 10: /ei laboranti\, indir. obj. of dat.]

    [Footnote 11: /a Pullone\, _from Pullo_, abl. of separation.]

    [Footnote 12: /cupidius\, _too eagerly_.]

    [Footnote 13: /pede se fallente\, lit. _the foot deceiving itself_;
    in our idiom, _his foot slipping_.]


LXXI. THE ENEMY BESIEGING THE CAMP ARE REPULSED

Cum iam sex horas pugnatum esset[1] ac non solum vires sed etiam tela
Romanos deficerent[1], atque hostes acrius instarent,[1] et vallum
scindere fossamque complere incepissent,[1] Caesar, vir rei militaris
peritissimus, suis imperavit ut proelium paulisper intermitterent,[2]
et, signo dato, ex castris erumperent.[2] [3]Quod iussi sunt faciunt, et
subito ex omnibus portis erumpunt. Atque tam celeriter milites
concurrerunt et tam propinqui erant hostes[4] ut spatium pila
coniciendi[5] non daretur. Itaque reiectis pilis [6]comminus gladiis
pugnatum est. Diu et audacter hostes restiterunt et in extrema spe
salutis tantam virtutem praestiterunt ut a dextro cornu vehementer
[7]multitudine suorum aciem Romanam premerent. [8]Id imperator cum
animadvertisset, Publium adulescentem cum equitatu misit qui
laborantibus[9] auxilium daret. Eius impetum sustinere non potuerunt
hostes[10] et omnes terga verterunt. Eos in fugam datos Publius
subsecutus est usque ad flumen Rhenum, quod ab eo loco quinque milia
passuum aberat. Ibi pauci salutem sibi reppererunt. Omnibus reliquis
interfectis, Publius et equites in castra sese receperunt. De hac
calamitate finitimae gentes cum certiores factae essent, ad Caesarem
legatos miserunt et se suaque omnia dediderunt.

    [Footnote 1: /pugnatum esset, deficerent, instarent, incepissent\.
    These are all subjunctives with /cum\. Cf. Sec. 501.46.]

    [Footnote 2: /intermitterent, erumperent\. What use of the
    subjunctive?]

    [Footnote 3: /Quod\, etc., _they do as ordered_. The antecedent of
    /quod\ is /id\ understood, which would be the object of /faciunt\.]

    [Footnote 4: /ut ... daretur\. Is this a clause of purpose or of
    result?]

    [Footnote 5: /coniciendi\, Sec. 402.]

    [Footnote 6: /comminus gladiis pugnatum est\, _a hand-to-hand
    conflict was waged with swords_.]

    [Footnote 7: /multitudine suorum\, _by their numbers_. /suorum\ is
    used as a noun. What is the literal translation of this expression?]

    [Footnote 8: /Id imperator. Id\ is the obj. and /imperator\ the
    subj. of /animadvertisset\.]

    [Footnote 9: /laborantibus\. This participle agrees with /iis\
    understood, the indir. obj. of /daret; qui ... daret\ is a purpose
    clause, Sec. 501.40.]

    [Footnote 10: /hostes\, subj. of /potuerunt\.]


LXXII. PUBLIUS GOES TO GERMANY : ITS GREAT FORESTS AND STRANGE ANIMALS

Inita aestate Caesar litteris certior fiebat et per exploratores
cognoscebat pluris civitates Galliae novis rebus studere,[1] et contra
populum Romanum coniurare[1] obsidesque [2]inter se dare,[1] atque cum
his Germanos quosdam quoque sese coniuncturos esse.[1] His litteris
nuntiisque commotus Caesar constituit quam celerrime in Gallos
proficisci,[3] ut eos inopinantis opprimeret, et Labienum legatum cum
duabus legionibus peditum et duobus milibus equitum in Germanos
mittere.[3] [4]Itaque re frumentaria comparata castra movit. Ab
utroque[5] res bene gesta est; nam Caesar tam celeriter in hostium finis
pervenit ut spatium [6]copias cogendi non daretur[4]; et Labienus de
Germanis tam grave supplicium sumpsit ut nemo ex ea gente in reliquum
tempus Gallis auxilium dare auderet.[7]

Hoc iter in Germaniam Publius quoque fecit et, [8]cum ibi moraretur,
multa mirabilia vidit. Praesertim vero ingentem silvam mirabatur, quae
tantae magnitudinis esse dicebatur [9]ut nemo eam transire posset, nec
quisquam sciret aut initium aut finem. Qua de re plura cognoverat a
milite quodam qui olim captus a Germanis multos annos ibi incoluit.
Ille[10] de silva dicens, "Infinitae magnitudinis est haec silva,"
inquit; "nee quisquam est [11]huius Germaniae [12]qui initium eius sciat
aut ad finem adierit. Nascuntur illic multa talia animalium genera
qualia reliquis in locis non inveniuntur. Sunt boves qui unum[13] cornu
habent; sunt etiam animalia quae appellantur alces. Hae nullos
crurum[14] articulos habent. Itaque, si forte conciderunt, sese erigere
nullo modo possunt. Arbores habent pro[15] cubilibus; ad eas se
applicant atque ita reclinatae quietem capiunt. Tertium est genus eorum
qui uri appellantur. Hi sunt paulo minores elephantis.[16] Magna vis
eorum est et magna velocitas. Neque homini neque ferae parcunt.[17]"

    [Footnote 1: Observe that all these infinitives are in indirect
    statements after /certior fiebat\, _he was informed_, and
    /cognoscebat\, _he learned_. Cf. Sec. 501.48, 49.]

    [Footnote 2: /inter se\, _to each other_.]

    [Footnote 3: /proficisci, mittere\. These infinitives depend upon
    /constituit\.]

    [Footnote 4: Before beginning a campaign, food had to be provided.
    Every fifteen days grain was distributed. Each soldier received
    about two pecks. This he carried in his pack, and this constituted
    his food, varied occasionally by what he could find by foraging.]

    [Footnote 5: Abl. of personal agent, Sec. 501.33.]

    [Footnote 6: /copias cogendi\, Sec. 501.37.1.]

    [Footnote 7: /daretur, auderet\, Sec. 501.43. /auderet\ is not from
    /audio\.]

    [Footnote 8: /cum ... moraretur\, Sec. 501.46.]

    [Footnote 9: /ut ... posset, ... sciret\, Sec. 501.43.]

    [Footnote 10: /Ille\, subj. of /inquit\.]

    [Footnote 11: /huius Germaniae\, _of this part of Germany_.]

    [Footnote 12: /qui ... sciat ... adierit\, Sec. 501.45.]

    [Footnote 13: /unum\, _only one_.]

    [Footnote 14: /crurum\, from /crus\.]

    [Footnote 15: /pro\, _for, in place of_.]

    [Footnote 16: /elephantis\, Sec. 501.34.]

    [Footnote 17: /parcunt\. What case is used with this verb?]


  [Illustration: VINEA]

LXXIII. THE STORMING OF A CITY

Publius pluris dies in Germania moratus[1] in Galliam rediit, et ad
Caesaris castra se contulit. Ille quia moleste ferebat Gallos[2] eius
regionis obsides dare recusavisse et exercitui frumentum praebere
noluisse, constituit eis[3] bellum inferre. Agris vastatis, vicis
incensis, pervenit ad oppidum validissimum quod et natura et arte
munitum erat. Cingebatur muro viginti quinque pedes[4] alto. A lateribus
duositum, praerupto fastigio ad planitiem vergegat; a quarto tantum[5]
latere aditus erat facilis. Hoc oppidum oppugnare, [6]cum opus esset
difficillimum, tamen constituit Caesar. Et castris munitis Publio
negotium dedit ut res [7]ad oppugnandum necessarias pararet.

Romanorum autem oppugnatio est haec.[8] Primum turres aedificantur
quibus milites in summum murum evadere possint[9]; vineae[10] fiunt
quibus tecti milites ad murum succedant; plutei[11] parantur post quos
milites tormenta[12] administrent; sunt quoque arietes qui murum et
portas discutiant. His omnibus rebus comparatis, deinde [13]agger ab ea
parte ubi aditus est facillimus exstruitur et cum vineis ad ipsum
oppidum agitur. Tum turris in aggere promovetur; arietibus qui sub
vineis conlocati erant murus et portae discutiuntur; ballistis,
catapultis, reliquisque tormentis lapides et tela in oppidum
coniciuntur. Postremo cum iam turris et agger altitudinem muri adaequant
et arietes moenia perfregerunt,[14] signo dato milites inruunt et
oppidum expugnant.

    [Footnote 1: /moratus\. Is this part. active or passive in meaning?]

    [Footnote 2: /Gallos\, subj. acc. of the infins. /recusavisse\ and
    /noluisse\. The indirect statement depends upon /moleste ferebat\.]

    [Footnote 3: /eis\, Sec. 501.15.]

    [Footnote 4: /pedes\, Sec. 501.21.]

    [Footnote 5: /tantum\, adv. _only_.]

    [Footnote 6: /cum ... esset\, a clause of concession, Sec. 501.46.]

    [Footnote 7: /ad oppugnandum\, a gerund expressing purpose.]

    [Footnote 8: /haec\, _as follows_.]

    [Footnote 9: /possint\, subjv. of purpose. Three similar
    constructions follow.]

    [Footnote 10: /vineae\. These /vineae\ were wooden sheds, open in
    front and rear, used to protect men who were working to take a
    fortification. They were about eight feet high, of like width, and
    double that length, covered with raw hides to protect them from
    being set on fire, and moved on wheels or rollers.]

    [Footnote 11: /plutei\, large screens or shields with small wheels
    attached to them. These were used to protect besiegers while moving
    up to a city or while serving the engines of war.]

    [Footnote 12: /tormenta\. The engines of war were chiefly the
    catapult for shooting great arrows, and the ballista, for hurling
    large stones. They had a range of about two thousand feet and were
    very effective.]

    [Footnote 13: The /agger\, or mound, was of chief importance in a
    siege. It was begun just out of reach of the missiles of the enemy,
    and then gradually extended towards the point to be attacked. At the
    same time its height gradually increased until on a level with the
    top of the wall, or even higher. It was made of earth and timber,
    and had covered galleries running through it for the use of the
    besiegers. Over or beside the _agger_ a tower was moved up to the
    wall, often with a battering-ram (_aries_) in the lowest story. (See
    picture, p. 221.)]

    [Footnote 14: /perfregerunt\, from /perfringo\.]

  [Illustration: BALLISTA]


  [Illustration: TURRES, ARIETES, VINEA]

LXXIV. THE CITY IS TAKEN : THE CAPTIVES ARE QUESTIONED

Omnibus rebus necessariis ad oppugnandum a Publio comparatis,
deliberatur in concilio quod consilium [1]oppidi expugnandi ineant.[2]
Tum unus[3] ex centurionibus, vir rei militaris peritissimus, "Ego
suadeo," inquit, "ut ab ea parte, ubi aditus sit[5] facillimus, aggerem
exstruamus[4] et turrim promoveamus[6] atque ariete admoto simul murum
discutere conemur.[5]" [6]Hoc consilium cum omnibus placeret, Caesar
concilium dimisit. Deinde milites hortatus ut priores victorias
memoria[7] tenerent, iussit aggerem exstrui, turrim et arietem admoveri.
Neque oppidanis[8] consilium defuit. Alii ignem et omne genus telorum de
muro in turrim coniecerunt, alii ingentia saxa in vineas et arietem
devolverunt. Diu utrimque acerrime pugnatum est. Ne vulnerati quidem
pedem rettulerunt. Tandem, [9]de tertia vigilia, Publius, quem Caesar
illi operi[10] praefecerat, nuntiavit partem[11] muri ictibus arietis
labefactam concidisse. Qua re audita Caesar signum dat; milites inruunt
et magna cum caede hostium oppidum capiunt.

Postridie eius diei, hoc oppido expugnato, [12]captivorum qui
nobilissimi sunt ad imperatorem ante praetorium[13] adducuntur. Ipse,
lorica aurata et paludamento purpureo insignis, captivos per interpretem
in hunc modum interrogat:[14] Vos qui estis[15]?

INTERPRES. Rogat imperator qui sitis.

CAPTIVI. Filii regis sumus.

INTERPRES. Dicunt se filios esse regis.

IMPERATOR. Cur mihi tantas iniurias intulistis?

INTERPRES. Rogat cur sibi tantas iniurias intuleritis.

CAPTIVI. Iniurias ei non intulimus sed pro patria bellum gessimus.
Semper voluimus Romanis esse amici, sed Romani sine causa nos domo
patriaque expellere conati sunt.

INTERPRES. [16]Negant se iniurias tibi intulisse, sed pro patria bellum
gessisse. [17]Semper se voluisse amicos Romanis esse, sed Romanos sine
causa se domo patriaque expellere conatos esse.

IMPERATOR. [18]Manebitisne in reliquum tempus in fide, hac rebellione
condonata?

Tum vero captivi multis cum lacrimis iuraverunt se in fide mansuros
esse, et Caesar eos incolumis domum dimisit.

    [Footnote 1: /oppidi expugnandi\. Is this a gerund or a gerundive
    construction? Cf. Sec. 501.37.]

    [Footnote 2: /ineant\. Sec. 501.50.]

    [Footnote 3: /unus\. subj. of /inquit\.]

    [Footnote 4: /sit\. This is a so-called subjunctive by attraction,
    which means that the clause beginning with /ubi\ stands in such
    close connection with the subjv. clause beginning with /ut\, that
    its verb is attracted into the same mood.]

    [Footnote 5: All these verbs are in the same construction.]

    [Footnote 6: /Hoc consilium\, subj. of /placeret\. For the order
    cf. /Haec cum\, etc., p. 215, l. 22, and note; /Id imperator cum\,
    p. 217, l. 8.]

    [Footnote 7: /memoria\, abl. of means.]

    [Footnote 8: /oppidanis\, Sec. 501.15.]

    [Footnote 9: Between twelve and three o'clock in the morning. The
    night was divided into four watches.]

    [Footnote 10: /operi\, Sec. 501.15.]

    [Footnote 11: /partem\, subj. acc. of /concidisse\.]

    [Footnote 12: /captivorum ... sunt\, _the noblest of the captives_.]

    [Footnote 13: The general's headquarters.]

    [Footnote 14: Study carefully these direct questions, indirect
    questions, and indirect statements.]

    [Footnote 15: See Plate III, p. 148.]

    [Footnote 16: /Negant\, etc., _they say that they have not_, etc.
    /Negant\ is equivalent to /dicunt non\, and the negative modifies
    /intulisse\, but not the remainder of the indirect statement.]

    [Footnote 17: /Semper\, etc., _that they have always_, etc.]

    [Footnote 18: /Manebitisne in fide\, _will you remain loyal?_]


LXXV. CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT BETWEEN CAESAR AND POMPEY
THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA

Ne confecto[1] quidem bello Gallico, [2]bellum civile inter Caesarem et
Pompeium exortum est. Nam Pompeius, qui summum imperium petebat, senatui
persuaserat ut Caesarem rei publicae hostem[3] iudicaret et exercitum
eius dimitti iuberet. Quibus cognitis rebus Caesar exercitum suum
dimittere recusavit, atque, hortatus milites ut ducem totiens victorem
ab inimicorum iniuriis defenderent, imperavit ut se Romam sequerentur.
Summa cum alacritate milites paruerunt, et transito Rubicone[4] initium
belli civilis factum est.

Italiae urbes quidem omnes fere [5]rebus Caesaris favebant et eum
benigne exceperunt. Qua re commotus Pompeius ante Caesaris adventum Roma
excessit et Brundisium[6] pervenit, inde [7]paucis post diebus cum
omnibus copiis ad Epirum mare transiit. Eum Caesar cum septem legionibus
et quingentis equitibus secutus est, et insignis inter Caesaris
comitatum erat Publius.

Pluribus levioribus proeliis factis, tandem copiae adversae ad
Pharsalum[8] in Thessalia sitam castra posuerunt. Cum Pompei exercitus
esset bis tantus quantus Caesaris, tamen erant multi qui veteranas
legiones quae Gallos et Germanos superaverant vehementer timebant.
Quos[9] [10]ante proelium commissum Labienus[11] legatus, qui ab Caesare
nuper defecerat, ita adlocutus est: "[12]Nolite existimare hunc esse
exercitum veteranorum militum. Omnibus interfui proeliis[13] neque
temere incognitam rem pronuntio. Perexigua pars illius exercitus qui
Gallos superavit adhuc superest. Magna pars occisa est, multi domum
discesserunt, multi sunt relicti in Italia. Hae copiae quas videtis in
[14]citeriore Gallia nuper conscriptae sunt." Haec[15] cum dixisset,
iuravit se nisi victorem in castra non reversurum esse. [16]Hoc idem
Pompeius et omnes reliqui iuraverunt, et magna spe et laetitia, sicut
certam ad victoriam, copiae e castris exierunt.

Item Caesar, animo[17] ad dimicandum paratus, exercitum suum eduxit et
septem cohortibus [18]praesidio castris relictis copias triplici acie
instruxit. Tum, militibus studio pugnae ardentibus, tuba signum dedit.
Milites procurrerunt et pilis missis gladios strinxerunt. Neque vero
virtus hostibus defuit. Nam et tela missa sustinuerunt et impetum
gladiorum exceperunt et ordines conservaverunt. Utrimque diu et acriter
pugnatum est nec quisquam pedem rettulit. Tum equites Pompei aciem
Caesaris circumire conati sunt. Quod[19] ubi Caesar animadvertit,
tertiam aciem,[20] quae ad id tempus quieta fuerat, procurrere iussit.
Tum vero integrorum impetum[21] defessi hostes sustinere non potuerunt
et omnes terga verterunt. Sed Pompeius de fortunis suis desperans se in
castra equo contulit, inde mox cum paucis equitibus effugit.

    [Footnote 1: With /ne: ... quidem\ the emphatic word stands between
    the two.]

    [Footnote 2: The Civil War was caused by the jealousy and rivalry
    between Caesar and Pompey. It resulted in the defeat and subsequent
    death of Pompey and the elevation of Caesar to the lordship of the
    Roman world.]

    [Footnote 3: /hostem\, predicate accusative, Sec. 501.22.]

    [Footnote 4: The Rubicon was a small stream in northern Italy that
    marked the boundary of Caesar's province. By crossing it with an
    armed force Caesar declared war upon Pompey and the existing
    government. Caesar crossed the Rubicon early in the year 49 B.C.]

    [Footnote 5: /rebus Caesaris favebant\, _favored Caesar's side_. In
    what case is /rebus\?]

    [Footnote 6: /Brundisium\, a famous port in southern Italy whence
    ships sailed for Greece and the East. See map.]

    [Footnote 7: /paucis post diebus\, _a few days later_; literally,
    _afterguards by a few days_. Cf. /paucis ante annis\, p. 213, l. 12,
    and note.]

    [Footnote 8: The battle of Pharsalia was fought on August 9, 48 B.C.
    In importance it ranks as one of the great battles of the world.]

    [Footnote 9: /Quos\, obj. of /adlocutus est\.]

    [Footnote 10: /ante proelium commissum\, _before the beginning of
    the battle_.]

    [Footnote 11: /Labienus\, Caesar's most faithful and skillful
    lieutenant in the Gallic War. On the outbreak of the Civil War, in
    49 B.C., he deserted Caesar and joined Pompey. His defection caused
    the greatest joy among the Pompeian party; but he disappointed the
    expectations of his new friends, and never accomplished anything of
    importance. He fought against his old commander in several battles
    and was slain at the battle of Munda in Spain, 45 B.C.]

    [Footnote 12: /Nolite existimare\, _don't think_.]

    [Footnote 13: /proeliis\, Sec. 501.15.]

    [Footnote 14: /citeriore Gallia\. This name is applied to Cisalpine
    Gaul, or Gaul south of the Alps.]

    [Footnote 15: /Haec\, obj. of /dixisset\.]

    [Footnote 16: /Hoc idem\, obj. of /iuraverunt\.]

    [Footnote 17: /animo\, Sec. 501.30.]

    [Footnote 18: /praesidio castris\, Sec. 501.17.]

    [Footnote 19: /Quod\, obj. of /animadvertit\.]

    [Footnote 20: /aciem\, subj. of /procurrere\.]

    [Footnote 21: /impetum\, obj. of /sustinere\.]


  [Illustration: SIGNIFER]

LXXVI. THE TRIUMPH OF CAESAR

Pompeio amicisque eius superatis atque omnibus hostibus ubique victis,
Caesar imperator Romam rediit et [1]extra moenia urbis in campo Martio
castra posuit. Tum vero amplissimis honoribus adfectus est. Dictator
creatus est, et ei triumphus a senatu est decretus. [2]Quo die de Gallis
triumphum egit, tanta multitudo hominum in urbem undique confluxit [3]ut
omnia loca essent conferta. Templa patebant, arae fumabant, columnae
sertis ornatae erant. [4]Cum vero pompa urbem intraret, quantus hominum
fremitus ortus est! Primum per portam ingressi sunt senatus et
magistratus. Secuti sunt tibicines, signiferi, pedites laurea coronati
canentes: "Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat, qui subegit Galliam," et "Mille,
mille, mille, mille Gallos trucidavimus." Multi praedam captarum urbium
portabant, arma, omnia belli instrumenta. Secuti sunt equites, animosis
atque splendidissime ornatis equis vecti, inter quos Publius adulescens
fortissimus habebatur. Adducebantur tauri, arietes, [5]qui dis
immortalibus immolarentur. Ita longo agmine progrediens exercitus
[6]sacra via per forum in Capitolium perrexit.

Imperator ipse cum urbem intraret, undique laeto clamore multitudinis
salutatus est. Stabat in curru aureo quem quattuor albi equi vehebant.
Indutus [7]toga picta, altera manu habenas et lauream tenebat, altera
eburneum sceptrum. Post eum servus in curru stans auream coronam super
caput eius tenebat. Ante currum miserrimi captivi, reges principesque
superatarum gentium, catenis vincti, progrediebantur; et viginti
quattuor lictores[8] laureatas fascis ferentes et signiferi currum
Caesaris comitabantur. Concludit agmen multitudo captivorum, qui, in
servitutem redacti,[9] demisso vultu, vinctis[10] bracchiis, sequuntur;
quibuscum veniunt longissimo ordine milites, etiam hi praedam vel
insignia militaria ferentes.

  [Illustration: LICTORES CUM FASCIBUS]

Caesar cum Capitolium ascendisset, in templo Iovi Capitolino sacra
fecit. Simul[11] captivorum qui nobilissimi erant, abducti in
carcerem,[12] interfecti sunt. Sacris factis Caesar de Capitolio
descendit et in foro miitibus suis honores militaris dedit eisque
pecuniam ex belli praeda distribuit.

His omnibus rebus confectis, Publius Caesarem valere[13] iussit et quam
celerrime ad villam contendit ut patrem matremque salutaret.

[14]De rebus gestis P. Corneli Lentuli hactenus.

    [Footnote 1: A victorious general with his army was not allowed to
    enter the city until the day of his triumph. A triumph was the
    greatest of all military honors.]

    [Footnote 2: /Quo die\, _on the day that_, abl. of time.]

    [Footnote 3: /ut ... essent\, Sec. 501.43.]

    [Footnote 4: /Cum ... intraret\, Sec. 501.46.]

    [Footnote 5: /qui ... immolarentur\, Sec. 501.40.]

    [Footnote 6: The Sacred Way was a noted street running along one
    side of the Forum to the base of the Capitoline Hill, on whose
    summit stood the magnificent temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. This
    route was always followed by triumphal processions.]

    [Footnote 7: The /toga picta\ worn by a general in his triumph was a
    splendid robe of Tyrian purple covered with golden stars. See Plate
    IV, p. 213.]

    [Footnote 8: The lictors were a guard of honor that attended the
    higher magistrates and made a way for them through the streets. On
    their shoulders they carried the _fasces_, a bundle of rods with an
    ax in the middle, symbolizing the power of the law.]

    [Footnote 9: /demisso vultu\, _with downcast countenance_.]

    [Footnote 10: /vinctis\, from /vincio\.]

    [Footnote 11: /Simul\, etc., _At the same time those of the captives
    who were the noblest._]

    [Footnote 12: The prison was a gloomy dungeon on the lower slopes of
    the Capitoline Hill.]

    [Footnote 13: /valere iussit\, _bade farewell to_.]

    [Footnote 14: This sentence marks the end of the story.]




APPENDIX I

DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC.


NOUNS

_460._ Nouns are inflected in five declensions, distinguished by the
final letter of the stem and by the termination of the genitive
singular.

FIRST DECLENSION--A-stems, Gen. Sing. -ae

SECOND DECLENSION--O-stems, Gen. Sing. -i

THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant stems and I-stems, Gen. Sing. -is

FOURTH DECLENSION--U-stems, Gen. Sing. -u:s

FIFTH DECLENSION--E-stems, Gen. Sing. -e:i or -ei

_461._ FIRST DECLENSION. _A_-STEMS

  domina, _lady_    STEM domina-    BASE domin-

        SINGULAR            PLURAL
               TERMINATIONS          TERMINATIONS
  Nom.  domina   -a         dominae     -ae
  Gen.  dominae  -ae        domina:rum  -a:rum
  Dat.  dominae  -ae        domini:s    -i:s
  Acc.  dominam  -am        domina:s    -a:s
  Abl.  domina:  -a:        domini:s    -i:s

    _a._ /Dea\ and /filia\ have the termination -a:bus in the dative
    and ablative plural.

_462._ SECOND DECLENSION. _O_-STEMS

    _a._ MASCULINES IN -us

  dominus, _master_   STEM domino-   BASE domin-

        SINGULAR             PLURAL
               TERMINATIONS            TERMINATIONS
  Nom.  dominus   -us        domini:     -i:
  Gen.  domini:   -i:        domino:rum  -o:rum
  Dat.  domino:   -o:        domini:s    -i:s
  Acc.  dominum   -um        domino:s    -o:s
  Abl.  domino:   -o:        domini:s    -i:s

  1. Nouns in -us of the second declension have the termination -e in
  the vocative singular, as /domine\.

  2. Proper names in -ius, and /filius\, end in -i: in the vocative
  singular, and the accent rests on the penult, as /Vergi'li:, fi:li:\.

    _b._ NEUTERS IN -um

    pi:lum, _spear_   STEM pi:lo-   BASE pi:l-

        SINGULAR          PLURAL
               TERMINATIONS        TERMINATIONS
  Nom.  pi:lum   -um       pi:la      -a
  Gen.  pi:li:   -i:       pi:lo:rum  -o:rum
  Dat.  pi:lo:   -o:       pi:li:s    -i:s
  Acc.  pi:lum   -um       pi:la      -a
  Abl.  pi:lo:   -o:       pi:li:s    -i:s

  1. Masculines in -ius and neuters in -ium end in -i: in the
  genitive singular, _not_ in -ii:, and the accent rests on the penult.

    _c._ MASCULINES IN -er AND -ir

         puer, _boy_  ager, _field_  vir, _man_
  STEMS  puero-       agro-          viro-
  BASES  puer-        agr-           vir-

         SINGULAR                          TERMINATIONS
  Nom.   puer         ager           vir       --
  Gen.   pueri:       agri:          viri:     -i:
  Dat.   puero:       agro:          viro:     -o:
  Acc.   puerum       agrum          virum     -um
  Abl.   puero:       agro:          viro:     -o:

         PLURAL
  Nom.   pueri:       agri:          viri:     -i:
  Gen.   puero:rum    agro:rum       viro:rum  -o:rum
  Dat.   pueri:s      agri:s         viri:s    -i:s
  Acc.   puero:s      agro:s         viro:s    -o:s
  Abl.   pueri:s      agri:s         viri:s    -i:s

_463._ THIRD DECLENSION.

CLASSIFICATION

I. Consonant Stems

  1. Stems that add -s to the base to form the nominative
     singular: masculines and feminines only.

  2. Stems that add no termination in the nominitive singular:
     _a._ masculines and feminines; _b._ neuters.

II. _I_-Stems.

  Masculines, feminines, and neuters.

_464._ I. CONSONANT STEMS

1. _Nouns that add -s to the base to form the nominative singular:
masculines and feminines only_

          pri:nceps,     mi:les, m.,    lapis, m.,
          m., _chief_    _soldier_      _stone_
  BASES |
  OR    | pri:ncip-      mi:lit-        lapid-
  STEMS |

          SINGULAR                               TERMINATIONS
  Nom.    pri:nceps      mi:les         lapis        -s
  Gen.    pri:ncipis     mi:litis       lapidis      -is
  Dat.    pri:ncipi:     mi:liti:       lapidi:      -i:
  Acc.    pri:ncipem     mi:litem       lapidem      -em
  Abl.    pri:ncipe      mi:lite        lapide       -e

          PLURAL
  Nom.    pri:ncipe:s    mi:lite:s      lapide:s     -e:s
  Gen.    pri:ncipum     mi:litum       lapidum      -um
  Dat.    pri:ncipibus   mi:litibus     lapidibus    -ibus
  Acc.    pri:ncipe:s    mi:lite:s      lapide:s     -e:s
  Abl.    pri:ncipibus   mi:litibus     lapidibus    -ibus

          re:x, m.,      iu:dex, m.,    virtu:s, f.,
          _king_         _judge_        _virtue_
  BASES |
  OR    | re:g-          iu:dic-        virtu:t-
  STEMS |

          SINGULAR                                TERMINATIONS
  Nom.    re:x           iu:dex         virtu:s      -s
  Gen.    re:gis         iu:dicis       virtu:tis    -is
  Dat.    re:gi:         iu:dici:       virtu:ti:    -i:
  Acc.    re:gem         iu:dicem       virtu:tem    -em
  Abl.    re:ge          iu:dice        virtu:te     -e

          PLURAL
  Nom.    re:ge:s        iu:dice:s      virtu:te:s   -e:s
  Gen.    re:gum         iu:dicum       virtu:tum    -um
  Dat.    re:gibus       iu:dicibus     virtu:tibus  -ibus
  Acc.    re:ge:s        iu:dice:s      virtu:te:s   -es
  Abl.    re:gibus       iu:dicibus     virtu:tibus  -ibus

NOTE. For consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. Sec. 233.3.

  2. _Nouns that have no termination in the nominative singular_

    _a._ MASCULINES AND FEMININES

          co:nsul, m.,   legio:, f.,    o:rdo:,       pater, m.,
          _consul_       _legion_       m., _row_     _father_
  BASES |
  OR    | consul-        legio:n-       o:rdin-       patr-
  STEMS |

          SINGULAR                                         TERMINATIONS
  Nom.    co:nsul        legio:         o:rdo:        pater      --
  Gen.    co:nsulis      legio:nis      o:rdinis      patris     -is
  Dat.    co:nsuli:      legio:ni:      o:rdini:      patri:     -i:
  Acc.    co:nsulem      legio:nem      o:rdinem      patrem     -em
  Abl.    co:nsule       legio:ne       o:rdine       patre      -e

          PLURAL
  Nom.    co:nsule:s     legio:ne:s     o:rdine:s     patre:s    -e:s
  Gen.    co:nsulum      legio:num      o:rdinum      patrum     -um
  Dat.    co:nsulibus    legio:nibus    o:rdinibus    patribus   -ibus
  Acc.    co:nsule:s     legio:ne:s     o:rdine:s     patre:s    -e:s
  Abl.    co:nsulibus    legio:nibus    o:rdinibus    patribus   -ibus

NOTE. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf.
Sec. 236.1-3.

    _b._ NEUTERS
          flu:men,       tempus,        opus,         caput,
          n., _river_    n., _time_     n., _work_    n., _head_
  BASES |
  OR    | flu:min-       tempor-        oper-         capit-
  STEMS |

          SINGULAR                                         TERMINATIONS
  Nom.    flu:men        tempus         opus          caput      --
  Gen.    flu:minis      temporis       operis        capitis     -is
  Dat.    flu:mini:      tempori:       operi:        capiti:    -i:
  Acc.    flu:men        tempus         opus          caput      --
  Abl.    flu:mine       tempore        opere         capite     -e

          PLURAL
  Nom.    flu:mina       tempora        opera         capita     -a
  Gen.    flu:minum      temporum       operum        capitum    -um
  Dat.    flu:minibus    temporibus     operibus      capitibus  -ibus
  Acc.    flu:mina       tempora        opera         capita     -a
  Abl.    flu:minibus    temporibus     operibus      capitibus  -ibus

NOTE. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf.
Sec. 238.2, 3.

_465._ II. _I_-STEMS

    _a._ MASCULINES AND FEMININES

         caede:s, f.,  hostis,      urbs, f.,  clie:ns, m.,
         _slaughter_   m., _enemy_  _city_     _retainer_
  STEMS  caedi-        hosti-       urbi-      clienti-
  BASES  caed-         host-        urb-       client-

         SINGULAR                                          TERMINATIONS
  Nom.   caede:s       hostis       urbs       clie:ns      -s, -is,
                                                              _or_ -e:s
  Gen.   caedis        hostis       urbis      clientis     -is
  Dat.   caedi:        hosti:       urbi:      clienti:     -i:
  Acc.   caedem        hostem       urbem      clientem     -em (-im)
  Abl.   caede         hoste        urbe       cliente      -e (-i:)

         PLURAL
  Nom.   caede:s       hoste:s      urbe:s     cliente:s    -e:s
  Gen.   caedium       hostium      urbium     clientium    -ium
  Dat.   caedibus      hostibus     urbibus    clientibus   -ibus
  Acc.   caedi:s,      hosti:s,     urbi:s,    clienti:s,   -i:s, -e:s
           -e:s          -e:s         -e:s       -e:s
  Abl.   caedibus      hostibus     urbibus    clientibus   -ibus

  1. /Avis\, /civis\, /finis\, /ignis\, /navis\, have the abl. sing.
  in -i: or -e.

  2. /Turris\ has accusative /turrim\ and ablative /turri:\ or /turre\.

    _b._ NEUTERS

         i:nsigne, n.,   animal, n.,     calcar,
         _decoration_    _animal_        n., _spur_

  STEMS  i:nsigni-       anima:li-       calca:ri-
  BASES  i:nsign-        anima:l-        calca:r-

         SINGULAR                                    TERMINATIONS
  Nom.   i:nsigne        animal          calcar        -e _or_ --
  Gen.   i:nsignis       anima:lis       calca:ris     -is
  Dat.   i:nsigni:       anima:li:       calca:ri:     -i:
  Acc.   i:nsigne        animal          calcar        -e _or_ --
  Abl.   i:nsigni:       anima:li:       calca:ri:     -i:

         PLURAL
  Nom.   i:nsignia       anima:lia       calca:ria     -ia
  Gen.   i:nsignium      anima:lium      calca:rium    -ium
  Dat.   i:nsignibus     anima:libus     calca:ribus   -ibus
  Acc.   i:nsignia       anima:lia       calca:ria     -ia
  Abl.   i:nsignibus     anima:libus     calca:ribus   -ibus


_466._ THE FOURTH DECLENSION. _U_-STEMS

         adventus, m.,    cornu:, n.,
         _arrival_        _horn_
  STEMS  adventu-         cornu-
  BASES  advent-          corn-

                                       TERMINATIONS
          SINGULAR                     MASC.     NEUT.
  Nom.   adventus          cornu:      -us        -u:
  Gen.   adventu:s         cornu:s     -u:s       -u:s
  Dat.   adventui: (u:)    cornu:      -ui: (u:)  -u:
  Acc.   adventum          cornu:      -um        -u:
  Abl.   adventu:          cornu:      -u:        -u:

           PLURAL
  Nom.   adventu:s         cornua      -u:s       -ua
  Gen.   adventuum         cornuum     -uum       -uum
  Dat.   adventibus        cornibus    -ibus      -ibus
  Acc.   adventu:s         cornua      -u:s       -ua
  Abl.   adventibus        cornibus    -ibus      -ibus

_467._ THE FIFTH DECLENSION. _E_-STEMS

         die:s, m., _day_   re:s, f., _thing_
  STEMS  die:-              re:-
  BASES  di-                r-

         SINGULAR                   TERMINATIONS
  Nom.   die:s              re:s      -e:s
  Gen.   die:i:             rei:      -e:i: _or_ -ei:
  Dat.   die:i:             rei:      -e:i: _or_ -ei:
  Acc.   diem               rem       -em
  Abl.   die:               re:       -e:

         PLURAL
  Nom.   die:s              re:s      -e:s
  Gen.   die:rum            re:rum    -e:rum
  Dat.   die:bus            re:bus    -e:bus
  Acc.   die:s              re:s      -e:s
  Abl.   die:bus            re:bus    -e:bus

_468._ SPECIAL PARADIGMS

         deus,          domus, f.,      vi:s, f.,      iter,
         m., _god_      _house_         _strength_     n., _way_
  STEMS  deo-           domu-           vi:- and       iter- and
                                          vi:ri-         itiner-
  BASES  de-            dom-            v- and         iter- and
                                          vi:r-          itiner-

  SINGULAR
  Nom.   deus           domus           vi:s           iter
  Gen.   dei:           domu:s          vi:s (rare)    itineris
  Dat.   deo:           domui:, -o:     vi: (rare)     itineri:
  Acc.   deum           domum           vim            iter
  Abl.   deo:           domo:, -u:      vi:            itinere

  PLURAL
  Nom.   dei:, di:      domu:s          vi:re:s        itinera
  Gen.   deo:rum, deum  domuum, -o:rum  vi:rium        itinerum
  Dat.   dei:s, di:s    domibus         vi:ribus       itineribus
  Acc.   deo:s          domo:s, -u:s    vi:ri:s, -e:s  itinera
  Abl.   dei:s, di:s    domibus         vi:ribus       itineribus

    _a._ The vocative singular of /deus\ is like the nominative.

    _b._ The locative of /domus\ is /domi:\.


ADJECTIVES

_469._ FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. _O_- AND _A_-STEMS

    _a._ ADJECTIVES IN -us

         bonus, _good_
  STEMS  bono- m. and n., bona- f.
  BASE   bon-

         SINGULAR
         MASC.      FEM.       NEUT.
  Nom.   bonus      bona       bonum
  Gen.   boni:      bonae      boni:
  Dat.   bono:      bonae      bono:
  Acc.   bonum      bonam      bonum
  Abl.   bono:      bona:      bono:

         PLURAL
  Nom.   boni:      bonae      bona
  Gen.   bono:rum   bona:rum   bono:rum
  Dat.   boni:s     boni:s     boni:s
  Acc.   bono:s     bona:s     bona
  Abl.   boni:s     boni:s     boni:s

    _b._ ADJECTIVES IN -er

         li:ber, _free_
  STEMS  li:bero- m. and n., li:bera:- f.
  BASE   li:ber-

         SINGULAR
         MASC.       FEM.        NEUT.
  Nom.   li:ber       li:bera      li:berum
  Gen.   li:beri:      li:berae     li:beri:
  Dat.   li:bero:      li:berae     li:bero:
  Acc.   li:berum     li:beram     li:berum
  Abl.   li:bero:      li:bera:      li:bero:

         PLURAL
  Nom.   li:beri:      li:berae     li:bera
  Gen.   li:bero:rum   li:bera:rum   li:bero:rum
  Dat.   li:beri:s     li:beri:s     li:beri:s
  Acc.   li:bero:s     li:bera:s     li:bera
  Abl.   li:beri:s     li:beri:s     li:beri:s

         pulcher, _pretty_
  STEMS  pulchro- m. and n., pulchra:- f.
  BASE   pulchr-

         SINGULAR
         MASC.        FEM.         NEUT.
  Nom.   pulcher      pulchra      pulchrum
  Gen.   pulchri:      pulchrae     pulchri:
  Dat.   pulchro:      pulchrae     pulchro:
  Acc.   pulchrum     pulchram     pulchrum
  Abl.   pulchro:      pulchra:      pulchro:

         PLURAL
  Nom.   pulchri:      pulchrae     pulchra
  Gen.   pulchro:rum   pulchra:rum   pulchro:rum
  Dat.   pulchri:s     pulchri:s     pulchri:s
  Acc.   pulchro:s     pulchra:s     pulchra
  Abl.   pulchri:s     pulchri:s     pulchri:s

_470._ THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

         alius, _another_
  STEMS  alio- m. and n., alia:- f.
  BASE   ali-

         SINGULAR                    PLURAL
         MASC.    FEM.     NEUT.     MASC.      FEM.       NEUT.
  Nom.   alius    alia     aliud     alii:      aliae      alia
  Gen.   ali:us   ali:us   ali:us    alio:rum   alia:rum   alio:rum
  Dat.   alii:    alii:    alii:     alii:s     alii:s     alii:s
  Acc.   alium    aliam    aliud     alio:s     alia:s     alia
  Abl.   alio:    alia:    alio:     alii:s     alii:s     alii:s

         u:nus, _one, only_
  STEMS  u:no- m. and n., u:na:- f.
  BASE   u:n-

         MASC.     FEM.      NEUT.      MASC.      FEM.       NEUT.
  Nom.   u:nus     u:na      u:num      u:ni:      u:nae      u:na
  Gen.   u:ni:us   u:ni:us   u:ni:us    u:no:rum   u:na:rum   u:no:rum
  Dat.   u:ni:     u:ni:     u:ni:      u:ni:s     u:ni:s     u:ni:s
  Acc.   u:num     u:nam     u:num      u:no:s     u:na:s     u:na
  Abl.   u:no:     u:na:     u:no:      u:ni:s     u:ni:s     u:ni:s

_a._ For the complete list see Sec. 108.

_471._ ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. _I_-STEMS

  I. THREE ENDINGS

        a:cer, a:cris, a:cre, _keen, eager_
        STEM a:cri-  BASE a:cr-

        SINGULAR                     PLURAL
        MASC.    FEM.     NEUT.      MASC.      FEM.       NEUT.
  Nom.  a:cer    a:cris   a:cre      a:cre:s    a:cre:s    a:cria
  Gen.  a:cris   a:cris   a:cris     a:crium    a:crium    a:crium
  Dat.  a:cri:   a:cri:   a:cri:     a:cribus   a:cribus   a:cribus
  Acc.  a:crem   a:crem   a:cre      a:cri:s,   a:cri:s,   a:cria
                                         -e:s       -e:s
  Abl.  a:cri:   a:cri:   a:cri:     a:cribus   a:cribus   a:cribus

  II. TWO ENDINGS

        omnis, omne, _every, all_
        STEM omni-  BASE omn-

        SINGULAR                  PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.     MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.
  Nom.  omnis           omne      omne:s          omnia
  Gen.  omnis           omnis     omnium          omnium
  Dat.  omni:           omni:     omnibus         omnibus
  Acc.  omnem           omne      omni:s, -e:s    omnia
  Abl.  omni:           omni:     omnibus         omnibus

  III. ONE ENDING

        pa:r, _equal_
        STEM pari-  BASE par-

        SINGULAR                   PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.      MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.
  Nom.  pa:r            pa:r       pare:s          paria
  Gen.  paris           paris      parium          parium
  Dat.  pari:           pari:      paribus         paribus
  Acc.  parem           pa:r       pari:s, -e:s    paria
  Abl.  pari:           pari:      paribus         paribus

  1. Observe that all i-stem adjectives have -i: in the ablative
  singular.

  [Transcriber's Note:
  This sentence appears to be a footnote, but there is no footnote tag
  on the page.]

_472._ PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLES

        ama:ns, _loving_
        STEM amanti- BASE amant-

        SINGULAR                       PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.          MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.
  Nom.  ama:ns          ama:ns         amante:s        amantia
  Gen.  amantis         amantis        amantium        amantium
  Dat.  amanti:         amanti:        amantibus       amantibus
  Acc.  amantem         ama:ns         amanti:s, -e:s  amantia
  Abl.  amante, -i:     amante, -i:    amantibus       amantibus

        ie:ns, _going_
        STEM ienti-, eunti-  BASE ient-, eunt-

  Nom.  ie:ns           ie:ns          eunte:s          euntia
  Gen.  euntis          euntis         euntium          euntium
  Dat.  eunti:          eunti:         euntibus         euntibus
  Acc.  euntem          ie:ns          eunti:s, -e:s    euntia
  Abl.  eunte, -i:      eunte, -i:     euntibus         euntibus

_473._ REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

  POSITIVE             COMPARATIVE                 SUPERLATIVE
  MASC.                MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.       MASC. FEM. NEUT.
  altus (alto-)        altior          altius      altissimus -a -um
  li:ber (li:bero-)    li:berior       li:berius   li:berrimus -a -um
  pulcher (pulchro-)   pulchrior       pulchrius   pulcherrimus -a -um
  auda:x (auda:ci-)    auda:cior       auda:cius   auda:cissimus -a -um
  brevis (brevi-)      brevior         brevius     brevissimus -a -um
  a:cer (a:cri-)       a:crior         a:crius     a:cerrimus -a -um

_474._ DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES

          altior, _higher_

          SINGULAR                    PLURAL
          MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.       MASC. AND FEM.   NEUT.
  _Nom._  altior          altius      altio:re:s       altio:ra
  _Gen._  altio:ris       altio:ris   altio:rum        altio:rum
  _Dat._  altio:ri:       altio:ri:   altio:ribus      altio:ribus
  _Acc._  altio:rem       altius      altio:re:s       altio:ra
  _Abl._  altio:re        altio:re    altio:ribus      altio:ribus

          plu:s, _more_

  _Nom._  ----            plu:s       plu:re:s         plu:ra
  _Gen._  ----            plu:ris     plu:rium         plu:rium
  _Dat._  ----            ----        plu:ribus        plu:ribus
  _Acc._  ----            plu:s       plu:ri:s (-e:s)  plu:ra
  _Abl._  ----            plu:re      plu:ribus        plu:ribus

_475._ IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

  POSITIVE              COMPARATIVE            SUPERLATIVE
  bonus, -a, -um,       melior, melius,        optimus, -a, -um,
    _good_                _better_               _best_
  malus, -a, -um,       peior, peius,          pessimus, -a, -um,
    _bad_                 _worse_                _worst_
  magnus, -a, -um,      maior, maius,          maximus, -a, -um,
    _great_               _greater_              _greatest_
  multus, -a, -um,      ----, plu:s, _more_    plu:rimus, -a, -um,
    _much_                                        _most_
  parvus, -a, -um,      minor, minus,          minimus, -a, -um,_
    _small_               _smaller_              _smallest
  senex, senis,         senior                 maximus na:tu:
    _old_
  iuvenis, -e,          iu:nior                minimus na:tu:
    _young_
  vetus, veteris,       vetustior, -ius        veterrimus, -a, -um
    _old_
  facilis, -e,          facilior, -ius         facillimus, -a, -um
    _easy_
  difficilis, -e,       difficilior, -ius      difficillimus, -a, -um
    _difficult_
  similis, -e,          similior, -ius         simillimus, -a, -um
    _similar_
  dissimilis, -e,       dissimilior, -ius      dissimillimus, -a, -um
    _dissimilar_
  humilis, -e, _low_    humilior, -ius         humillimus, -a, -um
  gracilis, -e,         gracilior, -ius        gracillimus, -a, -um
    _slender_
  exterus, _outward_    exterior,              extre:mus, extimus,
                          _outer, exterior_      _outermost, last_
  i:nferus, _below_     i:nferior, _lower_     i:nfimus, i:mus, _lowest_
  posterus,             posterior, _later_     postre:mus, postumus,
    _following_                                  _last_
  superus, _above_      superior,              supre:mus, summus,
                          _higher_               _highest_
  [[cis, citra:,]]      citerior, _hither_     citimus, _hithermost_
    [[_on this side_]]
  [[in, intra:,]]       interior, _inner_      intimus, _inmost_
    [[_in, within_]]
  [[prae, pro:,]]       prior,  _former_       pri:mus, _first_
    [[_before_]]
  [[prope, _near_]]     propior, _nearer_      proximus, _next_
  [[ultra:, _beyond_]]  ulterior, _further_    ultimus, _furthest_

_476._ REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

  POSITIVE                        COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
  ca:re: (ca:rus), _dearly_       ca:rius      ca:rissime:
  misere: (miser), _wretchedly_   miserius     miserrime:
  a:criter (a:cer), _sharply_     a:crius      a:cerrime:
  facile (facilis), _easily_      facilius     facillime:

_477._ IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

  POSITIVE                    COMPARATIVE        SUPERLATIVE
  diu:, _long, a long time_   diu:tius           diu:tissime:
  bene (bonus), _well_        melius, _better_   optime:, _best_
  male (malus), _ill_         peius, _worse_     pessime:, _worst_
  magnopere, _greatly_        magis, _more_      maxime:, _most_
  multum (multus), _much_     plu:s, _more_      plu:rimum, _most_
  parum, _little_             minus, _less_      minime:, _least_
  saepe, _often_              saepi:us           saepissime:

_478._ NUMERALS

The cardinal numerals are indeclinable excepting /u:nus\, /duo\,
/tre:s\, the hundreds above one hundred, and /mi:lle\ used as a noun.
The ordinals are declined like /bonus, -a, -um\.

         CARDINALS                     ORDINALS
         (_How many_)                  (_In what order_)
     1,  u:nus, -a, -um,  _one_        pri:mus, -a, -um       _first_
     2,  duo, duae, duo   _two_        secundus (_or_ alter)  _second_
     3,  tre:s, tria      _three_,     tertius                _third_,
     4,  quattuor           etc.       qua:rtus                 etc.
     5,  qui:nque                      qui:ntus
     6,  sex                           sextus
     7,  septem                        septimus
     8,  octo:                         octa:vus
     9,  novem                         no:nus
    10,  decem                         decimus
    11,  u:ndecim                      u:ndecimus
    12,  duodecim                      duodecimus
    13,  tredecim (decem (et) tre:s)   tertius decimus
    14,  quattuordecim                 qua:rtus decimus
    15,  qui:ndecim                    qui:ntus decimus
    16,  se:decim                      sextus decimus
    17,  septendecim                   septimus decimus
    18,  duode:vi:ginti: (octo:decim)  duode:vi:ce:nsimus
    19,  u:nde:vi:ginti: (novendecim)  u:nde:vi:ce:nsimus
    20,  vi:ginti:                     vi:ce:nsimus
    21, {vi:ginti: u:nus _or_         {vi:ce:nsimus pri:mus _or_
        {u:nus et vi:ginti:, etc.     {u:nus et vi:ce:nsimus, etc.
    30,  tri:ginta:                    tri:ce:nsimus
    40,  quadra:ginta:                 quadra:ge:nsimus
    50,  qui:nqua:ginta:               qui:nqua:ge:nsimus
    60,  sexa:ginta:                   sexa:ge:nsimus
    70,  septua:ginta:                 septua:ge:nsimus
    80,  octo:ginta:                   octo:ge:nsimus
    90,  no:na:ginta:                  no:na:ge:nsimus
   100,  centum                        cente:nsimus
   101,  centum (et) u:nus, etc.       cente:nsimus (et) pri:mus, etc.
   120,  centum (et) vi:ginti:         cente:nsimus vi:ce:nsimus
   121,  centum (et) vi:ginti: u:nus,  cente:nsimus (et) vi:ce:nsimus
           etc.                          pri:mus, etc.
   200,  ducenti:, -ae, -a             ducente:nsimus
   300,  trecenti:                     trecente:nsimus
   400,  quadringenti:                 quadringente:nsimus
   500,  qui:ngenti:                   qui:ngente:nsimus
   600,  sescenti:                     sescente:nsimus
   700,  septingenti:                  septingente:nsimus
   800,  octingenti:                   octingente:nsimus
   900,  no:ngenti:                    no:ngente:nsimus
  1000,  mi:lle                        mi:lle:nsimus

_479._ Declension of /duo\, _two_, /tre:s\, _three_, and /mi:lle\,
_a thousand_.

      MASC.     FEM.     NEUT.     M. AND F.   NEUT.     SING.   PLUR.
  N.  duo       duae     duo       tre:s       tri:a     mi:lle  mi:lia
  G.  duo:rum   dua:rum  duo:rum   trium       trium     mi:lle  mi:lium
  D.  duo:bus   dua:bus  duo:bus   tribus      tribus    mi:lle  mi:libus
  A.  duo:s     dua:s    duo       tri:s       tria      mi:lle  mi:lia
      _or_ duo  dua:s    duo       _or_ tre:s  tria
  A.  duo:bus   dua:bus  duo:bus   tribus      tribus    mi:lle  mi:libus

NOTE. /Mi:lle\ is used in the plural as a noun with a modifying
genitive, and is occasionally so used in the nominative and accusative
singular. For the declension of /u:nus\ cf. Sec. 470.


PRONOUNS

_480._ PERSONAL

        ego, _I_              tu:, _you_            sui:, _of himself,_
                                                            _etc._
        SING. PLUR.           SING. PLUR.           SING.     PLUR.
  Nom.  ego   no:s            tu:   vo:s            ----      ----
  Gen.  mei:  nostrum, -tri:  tui:  vestrum, -tri:  sui:      sui:
  Dat.  mihi  no:bi:s         tibi  vo:bi:s         sibi      sibi
  Acc.  me:   no:s            te:   vo:s            se:,      se:,
                                                      se:se:    se:se:
  Abl.  me:   no:bi:s         te:   vo:bi:s         se:,      se:,
                                                      se:se:    se:se:

Note that /sui:\ is always reflexive.

_481._ DEMONSTRATIVE

Demonstratives belong to the first and second declensions, but have the
pronominal endings -i:us or -ius and -i: in the gen. and dat. sing.

       ipse, _self_

       SINGULAR                       PLURAL
       MASC.     FEM.      NEUT.      MASC.      FEM.       NEUT.
  Nom. ipse      ipsa      ipsum      ipsi:      ipsae      ipsa
  Gen. ipsi:'us  ipsi:'us  ipsi:'us   ipso:rum   ipsa:rum   ipso:rum
  Dat. ipsi:     ipsi:     ipsi:      ipsi:s     ipsi:s     ipsi:s
  Acc. ipsum     ipsam     ipsum      ipso:s     ipsa:s     ipsa
  Abl. ipso:     ipsa:     ipso:      ipsi:s     ipsi:s     ipsi:s

       hic, _this_ (here), _he_

  Nom. hic       haec      hoc        hi:        hae        haec
  Gen. huius     huius     huius      ho:rum     ha:rum     ho:rum
  Dat. huic      huic      huic       hi:s       hi:s       hi:s
  Acc. hunc      hanc      hoc        ho:s       ha:s       haec
  Abl. ho:c      ha:c      ho:c       hi:s       hi:s       hi:s

       iste, _this, that_ (of yours), _he_

  Nom. iste      ista      istud      isti:      istae      ista
  Gen. isti:'us  isti:'us  isti:'us   isto:rum   ista:rum   isto:rum
  Dat. isti:     isti:     isti:      isti:s     isti:s     isti:s
  Acc. istum     istam     istud      isto:s     ista:s     ista
  Abl. isto:     ista:     isto:      isti:s     isti:s     isti:s

       ille, _that_ (yonder), _he_

  Nom. ille      illa      illud      illi:      illae      illa
  Gen. illi:'us  illi:'us  illi:'us   illo:rum   illa:rum   illo:rum
  Dat. illi:     illi:     illi:      illi:s     illi:s     illi:s
  Acc. illum     illam     illud      illo:s     illa:s     illa
  Abl. illo:     illa:     illo:      illi:s     illi:s     illi:s

       is, _this, that, he_

  Nom. is        ea        id         ii:, ei:    eae         ea
  Gen. eius      eius      eius       eo:rum      ea:rum      eo:rum
  Dat. ei:       ei:       ei:        ii:s, ei:s  ii:s, ei:s  ii:s, ei:s
  Acc. eum       eam       id         eo:s        ea:s        ea
  Abl. eo:       ea:       eo:        ii:s, ei:s  ii:s, ei:s  ii:s, ei:s

       i:dem, _the same_

  Nom. i:dem     e'adem    idem       ii:'dem     eae'dem     e'adem
                                         ei:'dem
  Gen. eius'dem  eius'dem  eius'dem   eo:run'dem  ea:run'dem  eo:run'dem
  Dat. ei:'dem   ei:'dem   ei:'dem    ii:s'dem    ii:s'dem    ii:s'dem
                                        ei:s'dem    ei:s'dem    ei:s'dem
  Acc. eun'dem   ean'dem   idem       eo:s'dem    ea:s'dem    e'adem
  Abl. eo:'dem   ea:'dem   eo:'dem    ii:s'dem    ii:s'dem    ii:s'dem
                                        ei:s'dem    ei:s'dem    ei:s'dem

NOTE. In the plural of /is\ and /i:dem\ the forms with two i's are
preferred, the two i's being pronounced as one.


_482._ RELATIVE

        qui:, _who, which, that_

        SINGULAR                  PLURAL
        MASC.   FEM.    NEUT.     MASC.     FEM.      NEUT.
  Nom.  qui:    quae    quod      qui:      quae      quae
  Gen.  cuius   cuius   cuius     quo:rum   qua:rum   quo:rum
  Dat.  cui     cui     cui       quibus    quibus    quibus
  Acc.  quem    quam    quod      quo:s     qua:s     quae
  Abl.  quo:    qua:    quo:      quibus    quibus    quibus

_483._ INTERROGATIVE

        quis, substantive, _who, what_

        SINGULAR                 PLURAL
        MASC. & FEM.  NEUT.      MASC.     FEM.      NEUT.
  Nom.  quis          quid       qui       quae      quae
  Gen.  cuius         cuius      quo:rum   qua:rum   quo:rum
  Dat.  cui           cui        quibus    quibus    quibus
  Acc.  quem          quid       quo:s     qua:s     quae
  Abl.  quo:          quo:       quibus    quibus    quibus

The interrogative adjective /qui:, quae, quod\, is declined like the
relative.


_484._ INDEFINITES

/quis\ and /qui:\, as declined above,[1] are used also as indefinites
(_some, any_). The other indefinites are compounds of /quis\ and /qui:\.

        quisque, _each_

        SUBSTANTIVE                ADJECTIVE
        MASC. & FEM.  NEUT.        MASC.       FEM.        NEUT.
  Nom.  quisque       quidque      quisque     quaeque     quodque
  Gen.  cuius'que     cuius'que    cuius'que   cuius'que   cuius'que
  Dat.  cuique        cuique       cuique      cuique      cuique
  Acc.  quemque       quidque      quemque     quamque     quodque
  Abl.  quo:que       quo:que      quo:que     qua:que     quo:que

    [Footnote 1: /qua\ is generally used instead of /quae\ in the
    feminine nominative singular and in the neuter nominative and
    accusative plural.]


_485._ qui:dam, _a certain one, a certain_

Observe that in the neuter singular the adjective has /quoddam\ and the
substantive /quiddam\.

        SINGULAR
        MASC.        FEM.         NEUT.
  Nom.  qui:dam      quaedam      quoddam, quiddam (_subst._)
  Gen.  cuius'dam    cuius'dam    cuius'dam
  Dat.  cuidam       cuidam       cuidam
  Acc.  quendam      quandam      quoddam, quiddam (_subst._)
  Abl.  quo:dam      qua:dam      quo:dam

        PLURAL
  Nom.  qui:dam      quaedam      quaedam
  Gen.  quo:run'dam  qua:run'dam  quo:run'dam
  Dat.  quibus'dam   quibus'dam   quibus'dam
  Acc.  quo:sdam     qua:sdam     quaedam
  Abl.  quibus'dam   quibus'dam   quibus'dam


_486._ /quisquam\, substantive, _any one_ (at all)

        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.
  Nom.  quisquam        quicquam (quidquam)
  Gen.  cuius'quam      cuius'quam
  Dat.  cuiquam         cuiquam
  Acc.  quemquam        quicquam (quidquam)
  Abl.  quo:quam        quo:quam


_487._ /aliquis\, substantive, _some one_. /aliqui:\, adjective, _some_

        SINGULAR
        SUBSTANTIVE                  ADJECTIVE
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.        MASC.       FEM.        NEUT.
  Nom.  aliquis         aliquid      aliqui:     aliqua      aliquod
  Gen.  alicu'ius       alicu'ius    alicu'ius   alicu'ius   alicu'ius
  Dat.  alicui          alicui       alicui      alicui      alicui
  Acc.  aliquem         aliquid      aliquem     aliquam     aliquod
  Abl.  aliquo:         aliquo:      aliquo:     aliqua:     aliquo:

        PLURAL FOR BOTH SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE
        MASC.        FEM.         NEUT.
  Nom.  aliqui:      aliquae      aliqua
  Gen.  aliquo:'rum  aliqua:'rum  aliquo:'rum
  Dat.  ali'quibus   ali'quibus   ali'quibus
  Acc.  aliquo:s     aliqua:s     aliqua
  Abl.  ali'quibus   ali'quibus   ali'quibus

    _a._ /quis\ (/qui:\), _any one, any_, is the least definite (Sec.
    297.b). /aliquis\ (/aliqui:\), _some one, some_, is more definite
    than /quis\. /quisquam\, _any one_ (at all), and its adjective
    /u:llus\, _any_, occur mostly with a negative, expressed or implied,
    and in clauses of comparison.


REGULAR VERBS

_488._ FIRST CONJUGATION. _A_-VERBS. _AMO:_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS amo:, ama:re, ama:vi:, ama:tus
  PRES. STEM ama:-    PERF. STEM ama:v-    PART. STEM ama:t-

  ACTIVE                         PASSIVE
  INDICATIVE
  PRESENT
  _I love, am loving,_           _I am loved_, etc.
    _do love_, etc.
  amo:         ama:mus           amor               ama:mur
  ama:s        ama:tis           ama:ris, -re       ama:mini:
  amat         amant             ama:tur            amantur

  IMPERFECT
  _I loved, was loving_,         _I was loved_, etc.
    _did love_, etc.
  ama:bam      ama:ba:mus        ama:bar            ama:ba:mur
  ama:ba:s     ama:ba:tis        ama:ba:ris, -re    ama:ba:mini:
  ama:bat      ama:bant          ama:ba:tur         ama:bantur

  FUTURE
  _I shall love_, etc.           _I shall be loved_, etc.
  ama:bo:      ama:bimus         ama:bor            ama:bimur
  ama:bis      ama:bitis         ama:beris, -re     ama:bimini:
  ama:bit      ama:bunt          ama:bitur          ama:buntur

  PERFECT
  _I have loved, loved,_         _I have been (was) loved_, etc.
    _did love_, etc.
  ama:vi       ama:vimus         ama:tus, {sum      ama:ti:, {sumus
  ama:visti:   ama:vistis        -a, -um  {es       -ae, -a  {estis
  ama:vit      ama:ve:runt, -re           {est               {sunt

  PLUPERFECT
  _I had loved_, etc.            _I had been loved_, etc.
  ama:veram    ama:vera:mus      ama:tus, {eram     ama:ti:, {era:mus
  ama:vera:s   ama:vera:tis      -a, -um  {era:s     -ae, -a {era:tis
  ama:verat    ama:verant                 {erat              {erant

  FUTURE PERFECT
  _I shall have loved_, etc.     _I shall have been loved_, etc.
  ama:vero:    ama:verimus       ama:tus, {ero:     ama:ti:, {erimus
  ama:veris    ama:veritis       -a, -um  {eris     -ae, -a  {eritis
  ama:verit    ama:verint                 {erit              {erunt

  SUBJUNCTIVE
  PRESENT
  amem         ame:mus           amer               ame:mur
  ame:s        ame:tis           ame:ris, -re       ame:mini:
  amet         ament             ame:tur            amentur

  IMPERFECT
  ama:rem      ama:remus         ama:rer            ama:re:mur
  ama:re:s     ama:re:tis        ama:re:ris, -re    ama:re:mini:
  ama:ret      ama:rent          ama:re:tur         ama:rentur

  PERFECT
  ama:verim    ama:verimus       ama:tus, {sim      ama:ti:, {si:mus
  ama:veris    ama:veritis       -a, -um  {si:s     -ae, -a  {si:tis
  ama:verit    ama:verint                 {sit               {sint

  PLUPERFECT
  ama:vissem   ama:visse:mus     ama:tus, {essem    ama:ti:,  {esse:mus
  ama:visse:s  ama:visse:tis     -a, -um  {esse:s   -ae, -a   {esse:tis
  ama:visset   ama:vissent                {esset              {essent

  IMPERATIVE
  PRESENT
  ama:, _love thou_              ama:re, _be thou loved_
  ama:te, _love ye_              ama:mini:, _be ye loved_

  FUTURE
  ama:to:, _thou shalt love_     ama:tor, _thou shalt be loved_
  ama:to:, _he shall love_       ama:tor, _he shall be loved_
  ama:to:te, _you shall love_    ----
  amanto:, _they shall love_     amantor, _they shall be loved_

  INFINITIVE
  Pres.  ama:re, _to love_       ama:ri:, _to be loved_
  Perf.  ama:visse,              ama:tus, -a, -um esse,
            _to have loved_        _to have been loved_
  Fut.  ama:tu:rus, -a, -um      [[ama:tum i:ri:]], _to be about to be
            esse, _to be_                              loved_
            _about to love_

  PARTICIPLES
  Pres.  ama:ns, -antis,         Pres.  ----
            _loving_
  Fut.   ama:tu:rus, -a, -um,    Gerundive[1]  amandus, -a, -um, _to be
           _about to love_                        loved_
  Perf.  ----                    Perf.  ama:tus, -a, -um,
                                         _having been loved, loved_

  GERUND
  Nom. ----
  Gen. amandi:, _of loving_
  Dat. amando:, _for loving_
  Acc. amandum, _loving_
  Abl. amando:, _by loving_

  SUPINE (Active Voice)
  Acc. [[ama:tum]], _to love_
  Abl. [[ama:tu:]], _to love, in the loving_

    [Footnote 1: Sometimes called the future passive participle.]

_489._ SECOND CONJUGATION. _E:_-VERBS. _MONEO:_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS moneo:, mone:re, monui:, monitus
  PRES. STEM mone:-    PERF. STEM monu-    PART. STEM  monit-

  ACTIVE                         PASSIVE
  INDICATIVE
  PRESENT
  _I advise_, etc.,              _I am advised,_ etc.
  moneo:      mone:mus           moneor             mone:mur
  mone:s      mone:tis           mone:ris, -re      mone:mini:
  monet       monent             mone:tur           monentur

  IMPERFECT
  _I was advising_, etc.,        _I was advised_, etc.
  mone:bam    mone:ba:mus        mone:bar           mone:ba:mur
  mone:ba:s   mone:ba:tis        mone:ba:ris, -re   mone:ba:mini:
  mone:bat    mone:bant          mone:ba:tur        mone:ba:ntur

  FUTURE
  _I shall advise_, etc.,        _I shall be advised_, etc.
  mone:bo:    mone:bimus         mone:bor           mone:bimur
  mone:bis    mone:bitis         mone:beris, -re    mone:bimini:
  mone:bit    mone:bunt          mone:bitur         mone:buntur

  PERFECT
  _I have advised,_              _I have been (was) advised_, etc.
    _I advised_, etc.
  monui:      monuimus                    {sum               {sumus
  monuisti:   monuistis          monitus, {es       moniti:, {estis
  monuit      monue:runt, -re    -a, -um  {est      -ae, -a  {sunt

  PLUPERFECT
  _I had advised_, etc.,         _I had been advised_, etc.

  monueram    monuera:mus                 {eram              {era:mus
  monuera:s   monuera:tis        monitus, {eras     moniti:, {eratis
  monuerat    monuerant          -a, -um  {erat     -ae, -a  {erant

  FUTURE PERFECT
  _I shall have advised_,        _I shall have been advised_, etc.
     etc.
  monuero:    monuerimus                  {ero:              {erimus
  monueris    monueri:tis        monitus, {eris     moniti:, {eritis
  monuerit    monueri:nt         -a, -um  {erit     -ae, -a  {erunt

  SUBJUNCTIVE
  PRESENT
  moneam      monea:mus          monear             monea:mur
  monea:s     monea:tis          monea:ris, -re     monea:mini:
  moneat      moneant            monea:tur          moneantur

  IMPERFECT
  mone:rem    mone:re:mus        mone:rer           mone:re:mur
  mone:re:s   mone:re:tis        mone:re:ris, -re   mone:re:mini:
  mone:ret    mone:rent          mone:re:tur        mone:rentur

  PERFECT
  monuerim    monuerimus                  {sim               {si:mus
  monueris    monueritis         monitus, {si:s     moniti:, {si:tis
  monuerit    monuerint          -a, -um  {sit      -ae, -a  {sint

  PLUPERFECT
  monuissem   monuisse:mus                {essem             {esse:mus
  monuisse:s  monuisse:tis       monitus, {esse:s   moniti:, {esse:tis
  monuisset   monuissent         -a, -um  {esset    -ae, -a  {essent

  IMPERATIVE
  PRESENT
  mone:, _advise thou_           mone:re, _be thou advised_
  mone:te, _advise ye_           mone:mini:, _be ye advised_

  FUTURE
  mone:to:, _thou shall_         mone:tor, _thou shalt be advised_
              _advise_
  mone:to:, _he shall advise_    mone:tor, _he shall be advised_
  mone:to:te, _you shall advise_  ----
  monento:, _they shall_         monentor, _they shall be advised_
            _advise_

  INFINITIVE
  Pres.  mone:re, _to advise_    mone:ri:, _to be advised_
  Perf.  monuisse, _to have_     monitus, -a, -um esse,
           _advised_              _to have been advised_
  Fut.   monitu:rus, -a, -um     [[monitum i:ri:]],
           esse, _to be_           _to be about to be advised_
           _about to advise_

  PARTICIPLES
  Pres.  mone:ns, -entis,        Pres.  ----
           _advising_
  Fut.  monitu:rus, -a, -um,     Ger.  monendus, -a, -um,
          _about to advise_              _to be advised_
  Perf.  ----                    Perf.  monitus, -a, -um,
                                          _having been advised, advised_

  GERUND
  Nom.  ----
  Gen.  monendi:, _of advising_
  Dat.  monendo:, _for advising_
  Acc.  monendum, _advising_
  Abl.  monendo:, _by advising_

  SUPINE (Active Voice)
  Acc.  [[monitum]], _to advise_
  Abl.  [[monitu:]], _to advise, in the advising_

_490._ THIRD CONJUGATION. _E_-VERBS. _REGO:_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS rego:, regere, rexi:, re:ctus
  PRES. STEM rege-    PERF. STEM re:x-    PART. STEM re:ct-

  ACTIVE                         PASSIVE
  INDICATIVE
  PRESENT
  _I rule_, etc.                 _I am ruled_, etc.
  rego:       regimus            re'gor             re'gimur
  regis       regitis            re'geris, -re      regi'mini:
  regit       regunt             re'gitur           regun'tur

  IMPERFECT
  _I was ruling_, etc.           _I was ruled_, etc.
  rege:bam    rege:ba:mus        rege:'bar          rege:ba:'mur
  rege:ba:s   rege:ba:tis        rege:ba:'ris, -re  rege:ba:'mini:
  rege:bat    rege:bant          rege:ba:'tur       rege:ban'tur

  FUTURE
  _I shall rule_, etc.           _I shall be ruled_, etc.
  regam       rege:mus           re'gar             rege:'mur
  rege:s      rege:tis           rege:'ris, -re     rege:'mini:
  reget       regent             rege:'tur          regen'tur

  PERFECT
  _I have ruled_, etc.           _I have been ruled_, etc.
  re:xi:      re:ximus                    {sum               {sumus
  re:xisti:   re:xistis          re:ctus, {es       re:cti:, {estis
  re:xit      re:xe:runt, -re    -a, -um  {est      -ae, -a  {sunt

  PLUPERFECT
  _I had ruled_, etc.            _I had been ruled_, etc.
  re:xeram    re:xera:mus                 {eram              {era:mus
  re:xera:s   re:xera:tis        re:ctus, {eras     re:cti:, {era:tis
  re:xerat    re:xerant          -a, -um  {erat     -ae, -a  {erant

  FUTURE PERFECT
  _I shall have ruled_, etc.     _I shall have been ruled_, etc.
  re:xero:    re:xerimus                  {ero:              {erimus
  re:xeris    re:xeritis         re:ctus, {eris     re:cti:, {eritis
  re:xerit    re:xerint          -a, -um  {erit     -ae, -a  {erunt

  SUBJUNCTIVE
  PRESENT
  regam       rega:mus           regar              rega:mur
  rega:s      rega:tis           rega:ris, -re      rega:mini:
  regat       regant             rega:tur           regantur

  IMPERFECT
  regerem     regere:mus         regerer            regere:mur
  regere:s    regere:tis         regere:ris, -re    regere:mini:
  regeret     regerent           regere:tur         regerentur

  PERFECT
  re:xerim    re:xerimus                 {sim               {si:mus
  re:xeris    re:xeritis         re:ctus, {si:s     re:cti, {si:tis
  re:xerit    re:xerint          -a, -um {sit       -ae, -a {sint

  PLUPERFECT
  re:xissem   re:xisse:mus                {essem            {esse:mus
  re:xisse:s  re:xisse:tis       re:ctus, {esse:s   re:cti, {esse:tis
  re:xisset   re:xissent         -a, -um {esset     -ae, -a {essent

  IMPERATIVE
  PRESENT
  rege, _rule thou_              regere, _be thou ruled_
  regite, _rule ye_              regimini:, _be ye ruled_

  FUTURE
  regito:, _thou shalt rule_     regitor, _thou shalt be ruled_
  regito: _he shall rule_        regitor, _he shall be ruled_
  regito:te, _ye shall rule_     ----
  regunto:, _they shall rule_    reguntor, _they shall be ruled_

  INFINITIVE
  Pres.  regere, _to rule_       regi:, _to be ruled_
  Perf.  re:xisse, _to have_     re:ctus, -a, -um esse,
           _ruled_                 _to have been ruled_
  Fut.   re:ctu:rus, -a, -um      [[re:ctum i:ri:]],
           esse, _to be_           _to be about to be ruled_
           _about to rule_

  PARTICIPLES
  Pres.  rege:ns, -entis,        Pres.  ----
           _ruling_
  Fut.   re:ctu:rus, -a, -um,    Ger.  regendus, -a, -um, _to be ruled_
           _about to rule_
  Perf.  ----                    Perf.  re:ctus, -a, -um,
                                          _having been ruled, ruled_

  GERUND
  Nom.  ----
  Gen.  regendi:, _of ruling_
  Dat.  regendo:, _for ruling_
  Acc.  regendum, _ruling_
  Abl.  regendo:, _by ruling_

  SUPINE (Active Voice)
  Acc.  [[re:ctum]], _to rule_
  Abl.  [[re:ctu:]], _to rule, in the ruling_

_491._ FOURTH CONJUGATION. _I:_-VERBS. _AUDIO:_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS audio:, audi:re, audi:vi:, audi:tus
  PRES. STEM audi:-    PERF. STEM audi:v-    PART. STEM audi:t-

  ACTIVE                           PASSIVE
  INDICATIVE
  PRESENT
  _I hear_, etc.                   _I am heard_, etc.
  audio:        audi:mus           au'dior             audi:'mur
  audi:s        audi:tis           audi:'ris, -re      audi:'mini:
  audit         audiunt            audi:'tur           audiun'tur

  IMPERFECT
  _I was hearing_, etc.            _I was heard_, etc.
  audie:bam     audie:ba:mus       audie:'bar          audie:ba:'mur
  audie:ba:s    audie:ba:tis       audie:ba:'ris, -re  audie:ba:'mini:
  audie:bat     audie:bant         audie:ba:'tur       audie:ban'tur

  FUTURE
  _I shall hear_, etc.             _I shall be heard_, etc.
  audiam        audie:mus          au'diar             audie:'mur
  audie:s       audie:tis          audie:'ris, -re     audie:'mini:
  audiet        audient            audie:'tur          audien'tur

  PERFECT
  _I have heard_, etc.             _I have been heard_, etc.
  audi:vi:      audi:vimus                   {sum                {sumus
  audi:visti:   audi:vistis        audi:tus, {es       audi:ti:, {estis
  audi:vit      audi:ve:runt, -re  -a, -um   {est      -ae, -a   {sunt

  PLUPERFECT
  _I had heard_, etc.              _I had been heard_, etc.
  audi:veram    audi:vera:mus                {eram              {era:mus
  audi:vera:s   audi:vera:tis      audi:tus, {eras    audi:ti:, {era:tis
  audi:verat    audi:verant        -a, -um   {erat    -ae, -a   {erant

  FUTURE PERFECT
  _I shall have heard_, etc.       _I shall have been heard_, etc.
  audi:vero:    audi:verimus                 {ero:              {erimus
  audi:veris    audi:veritis       audi:tus, {eris    audi:ti:, {eritis
  audi:verit    audi:verint        -a, -um   {erit    -ae, -a   {erunt

  SUBJUNCTIVE
  PRESENT
  audiam        audia:mus          audiar             audia:mur
  audia:s       audia:tis          audia:ris, -re     audia:mini:
  audiat        audiant            audia:tur          audiantur

  IMPERFECT
  audi:rem      audi:re:mus        audi:rer           audi:re:mur
  audi:re:s     audi:re:tis        audi:re:ris, -re   audi:re:mini:
  audi:ret      audi:rent          audi:re:tur        audi:rentur

  PERFECT
  audi:verim    audi:verimus                 {sim              {si:mus
  audi:veris    audi:veritis       audi:tus, {si:s    audi:ti, {si:tis
  audi:verit    audi:verint        -a, -um   {sit     -ae, -a  {sint

  PLUPERFECT
  audi:vissem   audi:visse:mus               {essem            {esse:mus
  audi:visse:s  audi:visse:tis     audi:tus, {esse:s  audi:ti, {esse:tis
  audi:visset   audi:vissent       -a, -um   {esset   -ae, -a  {essent

  IMPERATIVE
  PRESENT
  PRESENT
  audi:, _hear thou_               audi:re, _be thou heard_
  audi:te, _hear ye_               audi:mini:, _be ye heard_

  FUTURE
  audi:to:, _thou shalt hear_      audi:tor, _thou shalt be heard_
  audi:to: _he shall hear_         audi:tor, _he shall be heard_
  audi:to:te, _ye shall hear_      ----
  audunto:, _they shall hear_      audiuntor, _they shall be heard_

  INFINITIVE
  Pres.  audi:re, _to hear_        audi:ri:, _to be heard_
  Perf.  audi:visse,               audi:tus, -a, -um esse,
          _to have heard_            _to have been heard_
  Fut.   audi:tu:rus, -a, -um      [[audi:tum i:ri:]],
           esse, _to be_             _to be about to be heard_
           _about to hear_

  PARTICIPLES
  Pres.  audie:ns, -entis,         Pres.  ----
            _hearing_
  Fut.   audi:tu:rus, -a, -um,     Ger.   audiendus, -a, -um,
           _about to hear_                  _to be heard_
  Perf.  ----                      Perf.  audi:tus, -a, -um,
                                            _having been heard, heard_

  GERUND
  Nom.  ----
  Gen.  audiendi:, _of hearing_
  Dat.  audiendo:, _for hearing_
  Acc.  audiendum, _hearing_
  Abl.  audiendo:, _by hearing_

  SUPINE (Active Voice)
  Acc. [[audi:tum]], _to hear_
  Abl. [[audi:tu]], _to hear, in the hearing_

_492._ THIRD CONJUGATION. VERBS IN _-IO:_. _CAPIO:_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS capio:, capere, ce:pi:, captus
  PRES. STEM cape-    PERF. STEM ce:p-    PART. STEM capt-

  ACTIVE                            PASSIVE
  INDICATIVE
  PRESENT
  capio:      capimus               ca'pior            ca'pimur
  capis       capitis               ca'peris, -re      capi'mini:
  capit       capiunt               ca'pitur           capiun'tur

  IMPERFECT
  capie:bam   capiebamus            capie:'bar         capie:ba:'mur
  capie:bas   capie:ba:tis          capie:ba'ris, -re  capie:ba:'mini:
  capie:bat   capie:bant            capie:ba:'tur      capieban'tur

  FUTURE
  capiam     capie:mus              ca'piar            capie:'mur
  capie:s     capie:tis             capie:'ris, -re    capie:'mini:
  capiet     capient                capie:'tur         capien'tur

  PERFECT
  ce:pi:, ce:pisti:, ce:pit, etc.   captus, -a, -um  sum, es, est, etc.

  PLUPERFECT
  ce:peram, ce:pera:s, ce:perat,    captus, -a, -um  eram, era:s, erat,
    etc.                                               etc.

  FUTURE PERFECT
  ce:pero:, ce:peris, ce:perit,     captus, -a, -um  ero:, eris, erit,
    etc.                                               etc.

  SUBJUNCTIVE
  PRESENT
  capiam, capia:s, capiat,          capiar, -ia:ris, -re, -ia:tur, etc.
    etc.
  IMPERFECT
  caperem, capere:s, caperet,       caperer, -ere:ris, -re, -ere:tur,
    etc.                              etc.
  PERFECT
  ce:perim, ce:peris, ce:perit,     captus, -a, -um  sim, si:s, sit,
    etc.                                               etc.
  PLUPERFECT
  ce:pissem, ce:pisse:s,            captus, -a, -um  essem, esse:s,
    ce:pisset, etc.                                    esset, etc.

  IMPERATIVE
  PRESENT
  2d Pers.   cape    capite         capere   capimini:

  FUTURE
  2d Pers.   capito:  capito:te     capitor  ----
  3rd Pers.  capito:  capiunto:     capitor  capiuntor

  INFINITIVE
  Pres. capere                     capi:
  Perf. ce:pisse                   captus, -a, -um esse
  Fut. captu:rus, -a, -um          [[captum i:ri:]]
           esse

  PARTICIPLES
  Pres.  capie:ns, -ientis         Pres.  ----
  Fut.   captu:rus, -a, -um        Ger.   capiendus, -a, -um
  Perf.  ----                      Perf.  captus, -a, -um

  GERUND
  Gen. capiendi: etc.

  SUPINE (Active Voice)
  Acc. [[captum]]
  Abl. [[captu:]]

_493._ DEPONENT VERBS

  [Transcriber's Note:
  Asterisks in this section are from the original text ("marked with a
  star").]

  PRINCIPAL PARTS

    I. hortor, horta:ri:, horta:tus sum, _urge_
   II. vereor, vere:ri:, veritus sum, _fear_
  III. sequor, sequi:, secu:tus sum, _follow_
   IV. partior, parti:ri:, parti:tus sum, _share, divide_

NOTE. In addition to the passive conjugation, deponent verbs use certain
forms from the active. These are marked with a star. Deponent -io: verbs
of the third conjugation are inflected like the passive of capio:.

  INDICATIVE
  Pres.  hortor           vereor         sequor          partior
         horta:ris, -re   vere:ris, -re  sequeris, -re   parti:ris, -re
         horta:tur        vere:tur       sequitur        parti:tur
         horta:mur        vere:mur       sequimur        parti:mur
         horta:mini:      vere:mini:     sequimini:      parti:mini:
         hortantur        verentur       sequuntur       partiuntur
  Impf.  horta:bar        vere:bar       seque:bar       partie:bar
  Fut.   horta:bor        vere:bor       sequar          partiar
  Perf.  horta:tus sum    veritus sum    secu:tus sum    parti:tus sum
  Plup.  horta:tus eram   veritus eram   secu:tus eram   parti:tus eram
  F. P.  horta:tus ero:   veritus ero:   secu:tus ero:   parti:tus ero:

  SUBJUNCTIVE
  Pres.  horter           verear         sequar          partiar
  Impf.  horta:rer        vere:rer       sequerer        parti:rer
  Perf.  horta:tus sim    veritus sim    secu:tus sim    parti:tus sim
  Plup.  horta:tus essem  veritus essem  secu:tus essem  parti:tus essem

  IMPERATIVE
  Pres.  horta:re         vere:re        sequere         parti:re
  Fut.   horta:tor        vere:tor       sequitor        parti:tor

  INFINITIVE
  Pres.  horta:ri:        vere:ri:       sequi:          parti:ri:
  Perf.  horta:tus esse   veritus esse   secu:tus esse   parti:tus esse
  Fut.   horta:tu:rus     veritu:rus     secu:tu:rus     parti:tu:rus
           esse             esse           esse            esse

  PARTICIPLES
  Pres.  horta:ns         vere:ns        seque:ns        partie:ns
  Fut.   horta:turus      veritu:rus     secu:tu:rus     parti:tu:rus
  Perf.  horta:tus        veritus        secu:tus        parti:tus
  Ger.   hortandus        verendus       sequendus       partiendus

  GERUND
  hortandi:, etc.         verendi:, etc.
    sequendi:, etc.         partiendi:, etc.

  SUPINE
  [[horta:tus, -tu:]]     [[veritum, -tu:]]
    [[secu:tum, -tu:]]      [[parti:tum, -tu:]]

IRREGULAR VERBS

_494._ sum, _am, be_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS sum, esse, fui:, futu:rus
  PRES. STEM es-    PERF. STEM fu-    PART. STEM  fut-

  INDICATIVE
  PRESENT
  SINGULAR                         PLURAL
  sum, _I am_                      sumus, _we are_
  es, _thou art_                   estis, _you are_
  est, _he (she, it) is_           sunt, _they are_

  IMPERFECT
  eram, _I was_                    era:mus, _we were_
  era:s, _thou wast_               era:tis, _you were_
  erat, _he was_                   erant, _they were_

  FUTURE
  ero:, _I shall be_               erimus, _we shall be_
  eris, _thou wilt be_             eritis, _you will be_
  erit, _he will be_               erunt, _they will be_

  PERFECT
  fui:, _I have been, was_         fuimus, _we have been, were_
  fuisti:, _thou hast been, wast_  fuistis, _you have been, were_
  fuit, _he has been, was_         fue:runt, fue:re, _they have been,
                                                        were_

  PLUPERFECT
  fueram, _I had been_             fuera:mus, _we had been_
  fuera:s, _thou hadst been_       fuera:tis, _you had been_
  fuerat, _he had been_            fuerant, _they had been_

  FUTURE PERFECT
  fuero:, _I shall have been_      fuerimus, _we shall have been_
  fueris, _thou wilt have been_    fueritis, _you will have been_
  fuerit, _he will have been_      fuerint, _they will have been_

  SUBJUNCTIVE
  PRESENT                          IMPERFECT
  SINGULAR   PLURAL                SINGULAR   PLURAL
  sim        si:mus                essem      esse:mus
  si:s       si:tis                esse:s     esse:tis
  sit        sint                  esset      essent

  PERFECT                          PLUPERFECT
  fuerim     fuerimus              fuissem    fuisse:mus
  fueris     fueritis              fuisse:s   fuisse:tis
  fuerit     fuerint               fuisset    fuissent

  IMPERATIVE
  PRESENT
  2d Pers. Sing.  es, _be thou_
  2d Pers. Plur.  este, _be ye_
  FUTURE
  2d Pers. Sing.  esto:, _thou shalt be_
  3d Pers. Sing.  esto:, _he shall be_
  2d Pers. Plur.  esto:te, _ye shall be_
  3d Pers. Plur.  sunto:, _they shall be_

  INFINITIVE
  Pres.  esse, _to be_
  Perf.  fuisse, _to have been_
  Fut.   futu:rus, -a, -um esse or fore, _to be about to be_

  PARTICIPLE
  futu:rus, -a, -um, _about to be_

_495._ possum, _be able, can_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS possum, posse, potui:, ----

         INDICATIVE                 SUBJUNCTIVE
         SINGULAR   PLURAL          SINGULAR    PLURAL
  Pres.  possum     pos'sumus       possim      possi:'mus
         potes      potes'tis       possi:s     possi:'tis
         potest     possunt         possit      possint
  Impf.  poteram    potera:mus      possem      posse:'mus
  Fut.   potero:    poterimus       ----        ----
  Perf.  potui:     potuimus        potuerim    potuerimus
  Plup.  potueram   potuera:mus     potuissem   potuisse:mus
  F. P.  potuero:   potuerimus      ----        ----

  INFINITIVE
  Pres.  posse
  Perf.  potuisse

  PARTICIPLE
  Pres.  potens, _gen._ -entis, (adjective) _powerful_

_496._ pro:sum, _benefit_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS pro:sum, pro:desse, pro:fui:, pro:futu:rus
  PRES. STEM  pro:des-     PERF. STEM  pro:fu-   PART. STEM pro:fut-

         INDICATIVE                     SUBJUNCTIVE
         SINGULAR      PLURAL           SINGULAR     PLURAL
  Pres.  pro:sum       pro:'sumus       pro:sim      pro:si:'mus
         pro:des       pro:des'tis      pro:si:s     pro:si:'tis
         pro:dest      pro:sunt         pro:sit      pro:sint
  Impf.  pro:deram     pro:dera:mus     pro:dessem   prodesse:'mus
  Fut.   pro:dero:     pro:derimus      ----         ----
  Perf.  pro:fui:      pro:fuimus       pro:fuerim   pro:fuerimus
  Plup.  pro:fueram    pro:fuera:mus    pro:fuissem  pro:fuisse:mus
  F. P.  pro:fuero:    pro:fuerimus     ----         ----

  IMPERATIVE
  Pres. 2d Pers.  pro:des, pro:deste
  Fut. 2d Pers.   pro:desto:, pro:desto:te

  INFINITIVE
  Pres.  pro:desse
  Perf.  pro:fuisse
  Fut.   pro:futu:rus, -a, -um esse

  FUTURE PARTICIPLE  pro:futu:rus, -a, -um

_497._ [ volo:, no:lo:, ma:lo:]

  PRINCIPAL PARTS:
  volo:, velle, volui:, ----, _be willing, will, wish_
  no:lo:, no:lle, no:lui:, ----, _be unwilling, will not_
  ma:lo:, ma:lle, ma:lui:, ----, _be more willing, prefer_

/No:lo:\ and /ma:lo:\ are compounds of /volo:\. /No:lo:\ is for /ne\
(_not_) + /volo:\, and /ma:lo:\ for /ma:\ (from /magis\, _more_) +
/volo:\. The second person /vi:s\ is from a different root.

  INDICATIVE
         SINGULAR
  Pres.  volo:             no:lo:              ma:lo:
         vi:s              no:n vis            ma:vi:s
         vult              no:n vult           ma:vult

         PLURAL
         volumus           no:lumus            ma:lumus
         vultis            no:n vultis         ma:vul'tis
         volunt            no:lunt             ma:lunt

  Impf.  vole:bam          no:le:bam           ma:le:bam
  Fut.   volam, vole:s,    no:lam, no:le:s,    ma:lam, ma:le:s,
           etc.              etc.                etc.
  Perf.  volui:            no:lui:             ma:lui:
  Plup.  volueram          no:lueram           ma:lueram
  F. P.  voluero:          no:luero:           ma:luero:

  SUBJUNCTIVE
         SINGULAR
  Pres.  velim             no:lim              ma:lim
         veli:s            no:li:s             ma:li:s
         velit             no:lit              ma:lit

         PLURAL
         veli:'mus         no:li:'mus          ma:li:'mus
         veli:'tis         no:li:'tis          ma:li:'tis
         velint            no:lint             ma:lint

  Impf.  vellem            no:llem             ma:llem
  Perf.  voluerim          no:luerim           ma:luerim
  Plup.  voluissem         no:luissem          ma:luissem

  IMPERATIVE
  Pres.  no:li:
         no:li:te
  Fut.   no:li:to:, etc.

  INFINITIVE
  Pres.  velle             no:lle              ma:lle
  Perf.  voluisse          no:luisse           ma:luisse

  PARTICIPLE
  Pres.  vole:ns, -entis   no:le:ns, -entis     ----

_498._ fero:, _bear, carry, endure_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS fero:, ferre, tuli:, la:tus
  PRES. STEM  fer-    PERF. STEM  tul-    PART. STEM  la:t-

  INDICATIVE
        ACTIVE                     PASSIVE
  Pres. fero:     ferimus          feror        ferimur
        fers      ferti:s          ferris, -re  ferimimi:
        fert      ferunt           fertur       feruntur
  Impf. fere:bam                   fere:bar
  Fut.  feram, fere:s, etc.        ferar, fere:ris, etc.
  Perf. tuli:                      la:tus, -a, -um sum
  Plup. tuleram                    la:tus, -a, -um eram
  F. P. tulero:                    la:tus, -a, -um ero:

  SUBJUNCTIVE
  Pres. feram, fera:s, etc.        ferar, fera:ris, etc.
  Impf. ferrem                     ferrer
  Perf. tulerim                    la:tus, -a, -um sim
  Plup. tulissem                   la:tus, -a, -um essem

  IMPERATIVE
  Pres. 2d Pers.  fer     ferte     ferre    ferimini:
  Fut. 2d Pers.   ferto:  ferto:te  fertor
       3d Pers.   ferto:  ferunto   fertor   feruntor

  INFINITIVE
  Pres. ferre                       ferri:
  Perf. tulisse                     la:tus, -a, -um esse
  Fut.  la:tu:rus, -a, -um esse     ----

  PARTICIPLES
  Pres.  fere:ns, -entis            Pres.  ----
  Fut.   la:tu:rus, -a, -um         Ger.   ferendus, -a, -um
  Perf.  ----                       Perf.  la:tus, -a, -um

  GERUND
  Gen.  ferendi:
  Dat.  ferendo:
  Acc.  ferendum
  Abl.  ferendo:

  SUPINE (Active Voice)
  Acc. [[la:tum]]
  Abl. [[la:tu:]]

_499._ eo:, _go_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS eo:, i:re, ii: (i:vi:), itum (n. perf. part.)
  PRES. STEM i:-
  PERF. STEM i:- or i:v-
  PART. STEM it-

        INDICATIVE       SUBJUNCTIVE        IMPERATIVE
        SING.  PLUR.
  Pres. eo:   i:mus      eam                2d Pers.  i:     i:te
        i:s   i:tis
        it    eunt
  Impf. i:bam            i:rem
  Fut.  i:bo:            ----               2d Pers.  i:to:  i:to:te
                                            3d Pers.  i:to:  eunto:
  Perf. ii: (i:vi:)      ierim (i:verim)
  Plup. ieram (i:veram)  i:ssem (i:vissem)
  F. P. iero: (i:vero:)

  INFINITIVE
  Pres. i:re
  Perf. i:sse (i:visse)
  Fut.  itu:rus, -a, -um esse

  PARTICIPLES
  Pres. ie:ns, _gen._ euntis (Sec. 472)
  Fut.  itu:rus, -a, -um
  Ger.  eundum

  GERUND
  Gen.  eundi:
  Dat.  eundo:
  Acc.  eundum
  Abl.  eundo:

  SUPINE
  Acc.  [[itum]]
  Abl.  [[itu:]]

    _a._ The verb /eo:\ is used impersonally in the third person
    singular of the passive, as /i:tur\, /itum est\, _etc._

    _b._ In the perfect system the forms with /v\ are very rare.

_500._ /fi:o:\, passive of /facio:\; _be made, become, happen_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS fi:o:, fieri:, factus sum

  INDICATIVE                SUBJUNCTIVE    IMPERATIVE
  Pres.  fi:o:     ----     fi:am          2d Pers. fi:      fi:te
         fi:s      ----
         fit       fi:unt
  Impf.  fi:e:bam           fierem
  Fut.   fi:am              ----

  INDICATIVE                       SUBJUNCTIVE
  Perf.  factus, -a, -um  sum      factus, -a, -um  sim
  Plup.  factus, -a, -um  eram     factus, -a, -um  essem
  F. P.  factus, -a, -um  ero:

  INFINITIVE                       PARTICIPLES
  Pres.  fieri:                    Perf.  factus, -a, -um
  Perf.  factus, -a, -um  esse     Ger.   faciendus, -a, -um
  Fut.   [[factum i:ri:]]

  [Illustration: CASTRA MURO FOSSAQUE MUNIUNTUR]




APPENDIX II


_501._ RULES OF SYNTAX

NOTE. The rules of syntax are here classified and numbered
consecutively. The number of the text section in which the rule appears
is given at the end of each.

_Nominative Case_

  _1._ The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative and answers the
  question Who? or What? Sec. 36.

_Agreement_

  _2._ A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its
  subject. Sec. 28.

  _3._ A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb.
  Sec. 76.

  _4._ An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains.
  Sec. 81.

  _5._ Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.
  Sec. 65.

  _6._ A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive
  agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb.
  Sec. 215.a.

  _7._ A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and
  number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own
  clause. Sec. 224.

_Prepositions_

  _8._ A noun governed by a preposition must be in the accusative or
  ablative case. Sec. 52.

_Genitive Case_

  _9._ The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the
  genitive and answers the question Whose? Sec. 38.

  _10._ The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate,
  especially after the forms of /sum\, and is then called the _predicate
  genitive_. Sec. 409.

  _11._ Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the
  whole, known as _the partitive genitive_. Sec. 331.

  _12._ Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive
  with a modifying adjective. Sec. 443.

_Dative Case_

  _13._ The indirect object of a verb is in the dative. Sec. 45.

  _14._ The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive
  verbs /credo\, /faveo\, /noceo\, /pareo\, /persuadeo\, /resisto\,
  /studeo\, and others of like meaning. Sec. 154.

  _15._ Some verbs compounded with /ad\, /ante\, /con\, /de\, /in\,
  /inter\, /ob\, /post\, /prae\, /pro\, /sub\, /super\, admit the dative
  of the indirect object. Transitive compounds may take both an
  accusative and a dative. Sec. 426.

  _16._ The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward
  which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those
  meaning _near_, also _fit, friendly, pleasing, like_, and their
  opposites. Sec. 143.

  _17._ The dative is used to denote the _purpose_ or _end for which_;
  often with another dative denoting _the person or thing affected_.
  Sec. 437.

_Accusative Case_

  _18._ The direct object of a transitive verb is in the accusative and
  answers the question Whom? or What? Sec. 37.

  _19._ The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative. Sec. 214.

  _20._ The _place to which_ is expressed by /ad\ or /in\ with the
  accusative. Before names of towns, small islands, /domus\, and /rus\
  the preposition is omitted. Secs. 263, 266.

  _21._ _Duration of time_ and _extent of space_ are expressed by the
  accusative. Sec. 336.

  _22._ Verbs of _making, choosing, calling, showing_, and the like, may
  take a _predicate accusative_ along with the direct object. With the
  passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives. Sec. 392.

_Ablative Case_

  _23._ _Cause_ is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This
  answers the question Because of what? Sec. 102.

  _24._ _Means_ is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This
  answers the question By means of what? or With what? Sec. 103.

  _25._ _Accompaniment_ is denoted by the ablative with /cum\. This
  answers the question With whom? Sec. 104.

  _26._ The ablative with /cum\ is used to denote the manner of an
  action. /Cum\ may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the
  ablative. This answers the question How? or In what manner? Sec. 105.

  _27._ With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is
  used to denote the _measure of difference_. Sec. 317.

  _28._ The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect
  participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance.
  This is called the _ablative absolute_. Sec. 381.

  _29._ 1. Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the
    ablative with a modifying adjective. Sec. 444.

    2. Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical
    characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the
    ablative with a modifying adjective. Sec. 445.

  _30._ The ablative is used to denote _in what respect_ something is
  true. Sec. 398.

  _31._ The _place from which_ is expressed by /a\ or /ab\, /de:\, /e:\
  or /ex\ with the separative ablative. This answers the question
  Whence? Before names of towns, small islands, /domus\, and /rus\ the
  preposition is omitted. Secs. 264, 266.

  _32._ Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative
  to complete their meaning. This is called the _ablative of
  separation_. Sec. 180.

  _33._ The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when
  not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition /a\ or
  /ab\. This is called the _ablative of the personal agent_. Sec. 181.

  _34._ The comparative degree, if /quam\ is omitted, is followed by the
  separative ablative. Sec. 309.

  _35._ The _time when or within which_ anything happens is expressed by
  the ablative without a preposition. Sec. 275.

  _36._ 1. The _place at or in which_ is expressed by the ablative with
    /in\. This answers the question Where? Before names of towns, small
    islands, and /rus\ the preposition is omitted. Secs. 265, 266.

    2. Names of towns and small islands, if singular and of the first or
    second declension, and the word /domus\ express the _place in which_
    by the locative. Sec. 268.

_Gerund and Gerundive_

  _37._ 1. The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive,
    dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of
    these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns. Sec.
    406.1.

    2. The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of
    gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative
    without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive
    construction is more usual. Sec. 406.2.

  _38._ The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with /ad\, or the
  genitive with /causa\, is used to express purpose. Sec. 407.

_Moods and Tenses of Verbs_

  _39._ Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses, and secondary by
  secondary. Sec. 358.

  _40._ The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the
  _purpose_ of the action in the principal clause. Sec. 349.

  _41._ _A substantive clause of purpose_ with the subjunctive is used
  as object with verbs of _commanding, urging, asking, persuading_, or
  _advising_, where in English we should usually have the infinitive.
  Sec. 366.

  _42._ Verbs of _fearing_ are followed by a substantive clause of
  purpose introduced by /ut\ (_that not_) or /ne:\ (_that_ or _lest_).
  Sec. 372.

  _43._ _Consecutive clauses of result_ are introduced by /ut\ or /ut
  non\, and have the verb in the subjunctive. Sec. 385.

  _44._ _Object clauses of result_ with /ut\ or /ut non\ are found after
  verbs of effecting or bringing about. Sec. 386.

  _45._ A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe
  an antecedent. This is called the _subjunctive of characteristic or
  description_. Sec. 390.

  _46._ The conjunction /cum\ means _when, since_, or _although_. It is
  followed by the subjunctive unless it means _when_ and its clause
  fixes the time at which the main action took place. Sec. 396.

  _47._ When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is
  changed to the infinitive, and its subject nominative becomes subject
  accusative of the infinitive. Sec. 416.

  _48._ The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect
  statements is found after verbs of _saying, telling, knowing,
  thinking_, and _perceiving_. Sec. 419.

  _49._ A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present
  infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect
  infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive.
  Sec. 418.

  _50._ In an _indirect question_ the verb is in the subjunctive and its
  tense is determined by the law for tense sequence. Sec. 432.

  [Illustration: DOMINA]




APPENDIX III


REVIEWS[1]

    [Footnote 1: It is suggested that each of these reviews be assigned
    for a written test.]

  [Transcriber's Note:
  In this Review section, the lists of English words for translation may
  not be in the same order as in the original.]


I. REVIEW OF VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR THROUGH LESSON VIII

_502._ Give the English of the following words:[1]

  NOUNS
   agricola      /gallina\
   ancilla        iniuria
  /aqua\         /insula\
  /casa\         /luna\
  /causa\        /nauta\
   cena          /pecunia\
  /corona\        puella
  /dea\          /pugna\
   domina        /sagitta\
   fabula        /silva\
  /fera\         /terra\
  /filia\        /tuba\
  /fortuna\      /via\
  /fuga\         /victoria\

  ADJECTIVES
  /alta\         /magna\
  /bona\         /mala\
  /clara\        /nova\
  /grata\        /parva\
  /lata\         /pulchra\
  /longa\        /sola\

  VERBS
   amat          /necat\
  /dat\          /nuntiat\
  /est\          /parat\
   habitat       /portat\
  /laborat\      /pugnat\
  /laudat\       /sunt\
   narrat        /vocat\

  PREPOSITIONS
  /a:\ or /ab\
  /ad\
  /cum\
  /de\
  /e:\ or /ex\
  /in\

  PRONOUNS
  /mea\
  /tua\
  /quis\
  /cuius\
  /cui\
  /quem\
  /quid\

  ADVERBS
  /cur\
  /deinde\
  /non\
  /ubi\

  CONJUNCTIONS
  /et\
   quia
  /quod\

  INTERROGATIVE
  PARTICLE
  /-ne\

    [Footnote 1: Proper nouns and proper adjectives are not repeated in
    the reviews. Words used in Cassar's "Gallic War" are in heavy type.]

_503._ Give the Latin of the following words:[1]

Underline the words you do not remember. Do not look up a single word
till you have gone through the entire list. Then drill on the words you
have underlined.

  _flight_                      _wide_
   story                         tells
  _new_                         _money_
   lives (verb)                 _calls_
  _away from_                   _with_
  _who_                         _your_
  _why_                         _then, in the next place_
  _forest_                      _daughter_
  _wreath_                      _to whom_
  _deep, high_                  _fortune_
   dinner                       _famous_
  _out from_                    _labors_ (verb)
  _my_                          _kills_
  _where_                       _not_
  _trumpet_                     _in_
   lady, mistress               _and_
  _whom_                        _sailor_
  _island_                       farmer
  _goddess_                     _what_
  _wild beast_                  _way_
  _praises_ (verb)              _bad_
  _alone_                        loves
  _pleasing_                    _pretty_
  _prepares_                    _water_
  _are_                         _great_
  _to_                          _is_
  _because_                     _announces_
  _arrow_                       _injury, wrong_
  _cottage_                     _battle_ (noun)
  _gives_                       _small_
   girl                         _fights_ (verb)
  _good_                         maid
  _carries_                     _down from_
  _chicken_                     _long_
  _victory_                     _cause_
  _land_                        _whose_

    [Footnote 1: The translations of words used in Caesar are in
    italics.]

_504._ Review Questions. How many syllables has a Latin word? How are
words divided into syllables? What is the ultima? the penult? the
antepenult? When is a syllable short? When is a syllable long? What is
the law of Latin accent? Define the subject of a sentence; the
predicate; the object; the copula. What is inflection? declension?
conjugation? What is the ending of the verb in the third person
singular, and what in the plural? What does the form of a noun show?
Name the Latin cases. What case is used for the subject? the direct
object? the possessor? What relation is expressed by the dative case?
Give the rule for the indirect object. How are questions answered in
Latin? What is a predicate adjective? an attributive adjective? What is
meant by agreement? Give the rule for the agreement of the adjective.
What are the three relations expressed by the ablative? What can you say
of the position of the possessive pronoun? the modifying genitive? the
adjective? What is the base? What is grammatical gender? What is the
rule for gender in the first declension? What are the general principles
of Latin word order?

_505._ Fill out the following summary of the first declension:

  THE FIRST OR A-DECLENSION
  1. Ending in the nominative singular
  2. Rule for gender
  3. Case terminations
      a. Singular
      b. Plural
  4. Irregular nouns


II. REVIEW OF LESSONS IX-XVII

_506._ Give the English of the following words:

  NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION
  /agri cultura\    /galea\
  /constantia\      /inopia\
  /copia\           /lacrima\
  /diligentia\      /lorica\
  /fama\            /patria\
   femina           /praeda\

  NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION
  /ager\            /liberi\
  /amicus\           magister
  /arma\ (plural)   /murus\
  /auxilium\        /numerus\
  /bellum\          /oppidanus\
  /carrus\          /oppidum\
  /castrum\         /pilum\
  /cibus\           /populus\
  /consilium\       /praemium\
  /domicilium\      /proelium\
   dominus          /puer\
  /equus\           /scutum\
  /filius\          /servus\
   fluvius          /studium\
  /frumentum\       /telum\
  /gladius\         /vicus\
  /legatus\         /vir\

  ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
  /aeger, aegra, aegrum\
  /alius, alia, aliud\
  /alter, altera, alterum\
  /armatus, -a, -um\
  /creber, crebra, crebrum\
  /durus, -a, -um\
  /finitimus, -a, -um\
  /infirmus, -a, -um\
  /legionarius, -a, -um\
  /liber, libera, liberum\
  /maturus, -a, -um\
  /meus, -a, -um\
  /miser, misera, miserum\
  /multus, -a, -um\
  /neuter, neutra, neutrum\
  /noster, nostra, nostrum\
  /nullus, -a, -um\
  /pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum\
  /solus, -a, -um\
  /suus, -a, -um\
  /totus, -a, -um\
  /tuus, -a, -um\
  /ullus, -a, -um\
  /unus, -a, -um\
  /uter, utra, utrum\
   validus, -a, -um
  /vester, vestra, vestrum\

  VERBS
   arat
  /curat\
  /desiderat\
  /maturat\
  /properat\

  DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN
  /is, ea, id\

  CONJUNCTIONS
  /an\
  /-que\
  /sed\

  ADVERBS
  /iam\
   quo
  /saepe\

  PREPOSITION
  /apud\

_507._ Give the Latin of the following words:

  _sword_                 _shield_ (noun)
  _corselet_              _whole_
  _man_                   _it_
  _your_ (plural)         _aid_ (noun)
  _hasten_                _legionary_
  _but_                   _weak_
  _among_                 _arms_
  _tear_ (noun)            master (of school)
  _village_               _friend_
   strong                 _neighboring_
  _long for_              _sick_
  _and_ (enclitic)        _lieutenant_
  _often_                 _field_
  _want_ (noun)           _report, rumor_
  _which_ (of two)        _abode_
  _care for_              _boy_
  _or_ (in a question)    _his own_
   whither                _alone_
  _wagon_                 _prize_ (noun)
  _townsman_               master (owner)
  _wretched_              _carefulness_
  _ripe_                  _plenty_
  _war_                   _troops_
  _number_                _plan_ (noun)
  _my_                    _people_
  _free_ (adj.)           _beautiful_
  _children_              _no_ (adj.)
  _wall_                  _our_
  _grain_                 _battle_
  _weapon_                _spear_
  _one_                   _food_
   plow (verb)            _steadiness_
  _this_ or _that_        _fatherland_
  _already_               _town_
  _helmet_                _fort_
   river                  _camp_
  _zeal_                  _neither_ (of two)
  _any_                   _much_
  _he_                    _agriculture_
  _son_                   _other_
  _slave_                 _the other_ (of two)
  _your_ (singular)       _hard_
  _she_                   _booty_
  _woman_                 _frequent_
  _horse_                 _armed_

_508._ Review Questions. How many declensions are there? What three
things must be known about a noun before it can be declined? What three
cases of neuter nouns are always alike, and in what do they end in the
plural? What two plural cases are always alike? When is the vocative
singular not like the nominative? What is a predicate noun? With what
does it agree? What is an appositive? Give the rule for the agreement of
an appositive. How can we tell whether a noun in -er is declined like
/puer\ or like /ager\? Decline /bonus\, /liber\, /pulcher\. How can we
tell whether an adjective in -er is declined like /liber\ or like
/pulcher\? Why must we say /nauta bonus\ and not /nauta bona\? Name the
Latin possessive pronouns. How are they declined? With what does the
possessive pronoun agree? When do we use /tuus\ and when /vester\? Why
is /suus\ called a _reflexive_ possessive? What is the non-reflexive
possessive of the third person? When are possessives omitted? What four
uses of the ablative case are covered by the relations expressed in
English by _with_? Give an illustration in Latin of the _ablative of
manner_; of the _ablative of cause_; of the _ablative of means_; of the
_ablative of accompaniment_. What ablative regularly has /cum\? What
ablative sometimes has /cum\? What uses of the ablative never have
/cum\? Name the nine pronominal adjectives, with their meanings. Decline
/alius\, /nullus\. Decline /is\. What does /is\ mean as a demonstrative
adjective or pronoun? What other important use has it?

_509._ Fill out the following summary of the second declension:

  THE SECOND OR O-DECLENSION
  1. Endings in the nominative
  2. Rule for gender
  3. Case terminations of nouns in -us
          a. Singular
          b. Plural
      a. The vocative singular of nouns in -us
  4. Case terminations of nouns in -um
          a. Singular
          b. Plural
  5. Peculiarities of nouns in -er and -ir
  6. Peculiarities of nouns in -ius and -ium


III. REVIEW OF LESSONS XVIII-XXVI

_510._ Give the English of the following words:

  NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION
  /disciplina\       regina
  /forma\            superbia
  /poena\           /tristitia\
  /potentia\

  NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION
   ludus
  /ornamentum\
   sacrum
  /socius\
  /verbum\

  ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
  /amicus\            iratus
  /antiquus\         /laetus\
  /finitimus\        /molestus\
  /gratus\           /perpetuus\
  /idoneus\          /proximus\
  /inimicus\         /septem\
  /interfectus\      /superbus\

  ADVERBS
   hodie
  /ibi\
  /maxime\
   mox
  /nunc\
  /nuper\

  CONJUNCTIONS
  /etiam\
  /non solum ... sed etiam\

  PERSONAL PRONOUN
  /ego\

  VERBS
    CONJ. I
     volo, -are

    CONJ. II
    /deleo, -ere\      /noceo, -ere\
    /doceo, -ere\      /pareo, -ere\
    /faveo, -ere\      /persuadeo, -ere\
    /habeo, -ere\       sedeo, -ere
    /iubeo, -ere\      /studeo, -ere\
    /moneo, -ere\      /video, -ere\
    /moveo, -ere\

    CONJ. III
    /ago, -ere\        /fugio, -ere\
    /capio, -ere\      /iacio, -ere\
    /credo, -ere\      /mitto, -ere\
    /dico, -ere\        rapio, -ere
    /duco, -ere\       /rego, -ere\
    /facio, -ere\      /resisto, -ere\

    CONJ. IV
    /audio, -ire\
    /munio, -ire\
    /reperio, -ire\
    /venio, -ire\

    IRREGULAR VERB
    /sum, esse\

_511._ Give the Latin of the following words. In the case of verbs
always give the first form and the present infinitive.

  _ancient_                _power_
  _come_                   _make, do_
  _resist_                 _injure_
  _see_                    _now_
  _be_                     _annoying_
   fly                     _lead_
  _I_                      _move_
  _proud_                   soon
  _word_                   _glad_
  _sadness_                _punishment_
  _find_                   _believe_
  _rule_ (verb)            _advise_
  _be eager for_           _especially, most of all_
  _not only ... but also_     angry
  _seven_                  _beauty_
  _ally, companion_        _say_
   pride                   _command_ (verb)
  _fortify_                _there_
  _send_                   _slain_
   sit                     _training_
  _also_                   _take_
   school                  _have_
  _hear_                    to-day
  _hurl_                   _unfriendly_
  _persuade_               _drive_
  _only_                   _favor_ (verb)
  _nearest_                _suitable_
   sacred rite             _pleasing_
   queen                   _teach_
  _flee_                   _neighboring_
  _obey_                   _destroy_
  _lately_                 _friendly_
  _constant_                seize
  _ornament_

_512._ Review Questions. What is conjugation? Name two important
differences between conjugation in Latin and in English. What is tense?
What is mood? What are the Latin moods? When do we use the indicative
mood? Name the six tenses of the indicative. What are personal endings?
Name those you have had. Inflect sum in the three tenses you have
learned. How many regular conjugations are there? How are they
distinguished? How is the present stem found? What tenses are formed
from the present stem? What is the tense sign of the imperfect? What is
the meaning of the imperfect? What is the tense sign of the future in
the first two conjugations? in the last two? Before what letters is a
final long vowel of the stem shortened? What are the three possible
translations of a present, as of pugno? Inflect aro, sedeo, mitto,
facio, and venio, in the present, imperfect, and future active. What
forms of -io verbs of the third conjugation are like audio? what like
rego? Give the rule for the dative with adjectives. Name the special
intransitive verbs that govern the dative. What does the imperative mood
express? How is the present active imperative formed in the singular? in
the plural? What three verbs have a shortened present active imperative?
Give the present active imperative of porto, deleo, ago, facio, munio.


IV. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXVII-XXXVI

_513._ Give the English of the following words:

  NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION
  /ala\
  /cura\
  /mora\
  /porta\
  /provincia\
  /vita\

  NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION
  /animus\         /navigium\
   aurum            oraculum
  /bracchium\      /periculum\
  /deus\           /ventus\
  /locus\          /vinum\
   monstrum

  ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
  /adversus\       /dubius\
  attentus         /maximus\
  /carus\           perfidus
  /commotus\       /plenus\
  /defessus\        saevus
  /dexter\         /sinister\

  ADVERBS
  /antea\          /ita\
  /celeriter\      /longe\
  /denique\        /semper\
  /diu\            /subito\
  /frustra\        /tamen\
  /graviter\       /tum\

  CONJUNCTIONS
  /autem\
  /si\
  /ubi\

  PREPOSITIONS
  /de\
  /per\
  /pro\
  /sine\

  VERBS
    CONJ. I
    /adpropinquo\    /servo\
    /navigo\         /sto\
    /occupo\         /supero\
    /postulo\        /tempto\
    /recuso\         /vasto\
    /reporto\        /vulnero\

    CONJ. II
    /contineo\
    /egeo\
    /prohibeo\
    /respondeo\
    /teneo\

    CONJ. III
    /discedo\
    /gero\
    /interficio\

    IRREGULAR VERB
    /absum\

_514._ Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender
of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs.

  _be away_                       _heavily_
  _wind_                           monster
  _through_                       _approach_
  _if_                            _nevertheless_
   savage                         _place_
  _wound_ (verb)                  _be without, lack_
  _wine_                          _moved_
  _delay_                          gold
   faithless                      _restrain, keep from_
  _right_                         _without_
  _seize_                         _hold_
  _quickly_                       _suddenly_
  _before, in behalf of_          _dear_
  _battle_                        _always_
  _down from_ or _concerning_     _god_
  _moreover_                      _hold in, keep_
  _greatest_                      _afar_
   oracle                         _thus, so, as follows_
  _danger_                        _arm_ (noun)
  _lay waste_                     _when_
  _gate_                          _in vain_
  _doubtful_                      _stand_
  _opposite, adverse_             _bring back, win_
  _demand_                        _before, previously_
  _finally_                       _depart, go away_
   attentive                      _province_
  _then, at that time_            _care, trouble_
  _weary_                         _kill_
  _overcome, conquer_             _reply_ (verb)
  _conquer_                       _wing_
  _boat, ship_                    _mind, heart_
  _sail_ (verb)                   _left_ (adj.)
  _life_                          _bear, carry on_
  _save_                          _try_
  _full_                          _for a long time_
  _refuse_

_515._ Give the principal parts and meaning of the following verbs:

  /sum\          /faveo\
  /do\           /noceo\
  /teneo\        /dico\
  /iubeo\        /pareo\
  /ago\          /duco\
  /mitto\        /facio\
  /munio\        /persuadeo\
  /moveo\        /sedeo\
  /credo\        /studeo\
  /rapio\        /fugio\
  /reperio\      /venio\
  /deleo\        /iacio\
  /resisto\      /video\
  /audio\        /absum\
  /moneo\        /egeo\
  /capio\        /gero\
  /doceo\        /sto\
  /rego\

_516._ Review Questions. What are the personal endings in the passive
voice? What is the letter -r sometimes called? What are the
distinguishing vowels of the four conjugations? What forms constitute
the principal parts? What are the three different conjugation stems? How
may they be found? What are the tenses of the indicative? of the
infinitive? What tense of the imperative have you learned? What forms
are built on the present stem? on the perfect stem? on the participial
stem? What are the endings of the perfect active indicative? What is the
tense sign of the pluperfect active? of the future perfect active? How
is the present active infinitive formed? the present passive infinitive?
How is the present active imperative formed? the present passive
imperative? How is the perfect active infinitive formed? the perfect
passive infinitive? How is the future active infinitive formed? What is
a participle? How are participles in -us declined? Give the rule for the
agreement of the participle. How are the perfect, pluperfect, and future
perfect passive indicative formed? Conjugate the verb /sum\ in all moods
and tenses as far as you have learned it (Sec. 494). What is meant by
the separative ablative? How is the place _from which_ expressed in
Latin? Give the rule for the ablative of separation; for the ablative of
the personal agent. How can we distinguish between the ablative of means
and the ablative of the personal agent? What is the perfect definite?
the perfect indefinite? What is the difference in meaning between the
perfect indefinite and the imperfect? What two cases in Latin may be
governed by a preposition? Name the prepositions that govern the
ablative. What does the preposition /in\ mean when it governs the
ablative? the accusative? What are the three interrogatives used to
introduce _yes_-and-_no_ questions? Explain the force of each. What
words are sometimes used for _yes_ and _no?_ What are the different
meanings and uses of ubi?


V. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXXVII-XLIV

_517._ Give the English of the following words:

  NOUNS
    FIRST DECLENSION                SECOND DECLENSION
    /ripa\                          /barbari\
                                    /captivus\
                                    /castellum\
                                    /impedimentum\

    THIRD DECLENSION
    /animal\        /homo\          /ordo\
    /arbor\         /hostis\        /pater\
    /avis\          /ignis\         /pedes\
    /caedes\        /imperator\     /pes\
    /calamitas\     /insigne\        pons
     calcar         /iter\          /princeps\
    /caput\         iudex           /rex\
    /civis\         /labor\         /salus\
    /cliens\        /lapis\         /sanguis\
    /collis\        /legio\         /soror\
    /consul\        /mare\          tempus
    /dens\          /mater\         /terror\
    /dux\           /mensis\        /turris\
    /eques\         /miles\         /urbs\
    /finis\         /mons\          /victor\
    /flumen\        /navis\         /virtus\
     fons           /opus\          /vis\
    /frater\        /orator\

  ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
  /barbarus\
  /dexter\
  /sinister\
  /summus\

  PREPOSITIONS
  /in\ with the abl.
  /in\ with the acc.
  /trans\

  ADVERBS
  /cotidie\
  /numquam\

  CONJUNCTIONS
  /nec, neque\
  /nec ... nec\, or /neque ... neque\

  VERBS
  CONJ. I         CONJ. III
  /cesso\         /accipio\
  /oppugno\       /peto\
  /confirmo\      /vinco\
  /veto\          /incipio\
                  /pono\
                  /vivo\

_518._ Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender
of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs:

  _forbid_                  _in_
  _rank, row_               _judge_
  _brother_                 _defeat, disaster_
  _force_                   _fire_
  _across_                  _tree_
  _savages_                 _foot soldier_
  _horseman_                _receive_
  _never_                   _general_
  _mountain_                _highest_
  _manliness, courage_      _fountain_
  _leader_                  _orator_
  _put, place_              _neither ... nor_
  _time_                    _and not_
  _savage, barbarous_       _left_
  _sister_                  _tooth_
  _seek_                    _soldier_
  _captive_                 _month_
  _hindrance, baggage_      _city_
  _captive_                 _victor_
  _hindrance, baggage_      _daily_
  _man-of-war_              _live_ (verb)
  _conquer_                 _redoubt, fort_
  _consul_                  _sea_
  _mother_                  _tower_
  _retainer_                _drill_ (verb)
  _citizen_                 _legion_
  _head_                    _terror_
  _safety_                  _into, to_
  _assail, storm_           _right_ (adj.)
  _begin_                   _stone_
  _march_                   _blood_
  _decoration_              _labor_ (noun)
  _bridge_                  _king_
  _bird_                    _spur_
  _cease_                   _chief_
  _man_                     _slaughter_
  _river_                   _strengthen_
  _work_ (noun)             _foot_
  _and_                     _enemy_
  _ship_                    _animal_
  _bank_                    _father_

_519._ Review Questions. Give the conjugation of /possum\. What is an
infinitive? What three uses has the Latin infinitive that are like the
English? What is the case of the subject of the infinitive? What is
meant by a complementary infinitive? In the sentence _The bad boy cannot
be happy_, what is the case of _happy_? Give the rule. Decline /qui\.
Give the rule for the agreement of the relative. What are the two uses
of the interrogative? Decline /quis\. What is the base of a noun? How is
the stem formed from the base? Are the stem and the base ever the same?
How many declensions of nouns are there? Name them. What are the two
chief divisions of the third declension? How are the consonant stems
classified? Explain the formation of /lapis\ from the stem lapid-,
/miles\ from milit-, /rex\ from reg-. What nouns have i-stems?
What peculiarities of form do i-stems have,--masc., fem., and neut.?
Name the five nouns that have -i and -e in the abl. Decline
/turris\. Give the rules for gender in the third declension. Decline
/miles\, /lapis\, /rex\, /virtus\, /consul\, /legio\, /homo\, /pater\,
/flumen\, /opus\, /tempus\, /caput\, /caedes\, /urbs\, /hostis\, /mare\,
/animal\, /vis\, /iter\.

_520._ Fill out the following scheme:

               {              {  Masculine
               {  GENDER      {  Feminine
               {  ENDINGS     {  Neuter
               {
    THE THIRD  {              { I. CONSONANT  { _a_. Masc. and fem.
    DECLENSION {              {      STEMS    {  _b_. Neuters
               {    CASE      {
               { TERMINATIONS {
               {              {
               {              { II. _I_-STEMS { _a_. Masc. and fem.
               {              {               { _b_. Neuters
               {
               { IRREGULAR NOUNS


VI. REVIEW OF LESSONS XLV-LII

_521._ Give the English of the following words:

  NOUNS
    FIRST DECLENSION
    /amicitia\
    /hora\
    /littera\

    SECOND DECLENSION
    /annus\              /supplicium\,
    /modus\                /supplicium dare\
    /nuntius\              /supplicium sumere de\
    /oculus\             /tergum\,
    /regnum\               /tergum vertere\
    /signum\             /vestigium\

    THIRD DECLENSION
    /aestas\             /nox\
    /corpus\             /pars\
    /hiems\              /pax\
    /libertas\            rus
    /lux\,               /sol\
      /prima lux\        /vox\
    /nomen\              /vulnus\

    FOURTH DECLENSION
    /adventus\           /impetus\
    /cornu\              /lacus\
    /domus\              /manus\
    /equitatus\          /metus\
    /exercitus\          /portus\
    /fluctus\

    FIFTH DECLENSION
    /acies\              /res\,
    /dies\                 /res gestae\
    /fides\,               /res adversae\
      /in fidem venire\    /res secundae\
                           /res publica\
                         /spes\

    INDECLINABLE NOUN
    /nihil\

  ADJECTIVES
    FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
    /densus\                 /pristinus\
    /invisus\                /publicus\
    /mirus\                  /secundus\
    /pauci\                  /tantus\
    /primus\                 /verus\

    THIRD DECLENSION
    /acer, acris, acre\      /gravis, grave\
    /brevis, breve\          /incolumis, incolume\
    /difficilis, difficile\  /omnis, omne\
    /facilis, facile\        /par, par\
    /fortis, forte\          /velox, velox\

  PRONOUNS
    PERSONAL
    /ego\
    /nos\
    /sui\
    /tu\
    /vos\

    DEMONSTRATIVE
    /hic\
    /idem\
    /ille\
    /iste\

    INTENSIVE
    /ipse\

    INDEFINITE
    /aliquis, aliqui\
    /quidam\
    /quis, qui\
    /quisquam\
    /quisque\

  ADVERBS
  /ne: ... quidem\    /quoque\
   olim            /satis\
  /paene\          /vero\

  CONJUNCTIONS
  /itaque\
  /nisi\

  PREPOSITIONS
  /ante\
  /post\
  /propter\

  VERBS
    CONJ. I                    CONJ. II
    /conloco\                  /debeo\
    /convoco\                  /exerceo\
    /cremo\                    /maneo\
    /demonstro\                /placeo\
    /mando\                    /sustineo\

    CONJ. III                  CONJ. IV
    /committo\,                /desilio\
      /committere proelium\
    /decido\
    /eripio\
    /sumo\,
      /sumere supplicium de\
    /traduco\
    /verto\

_522._ Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender
of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs.

  _if not, unless_           _adversity_
  _on account of_            _former, old-time_
  _public_                   _all, every_
  _commonwealth_             _any one_ (at all)
  _leap down, dismount_      _this_ (of mine)
  _unharmed_                 _heavy, serious_
  _lead across_              _hateful, detested_
  _remain_                   _true_
  _call together_            _burn_
  _friendship_               _snatch from_
  _footprint, trace_         _letter_
  _each_                     _punishment_
  _fear_ (noun)              _inflict punishment on_
  _hope_                     _behind, after_
  _therefore_                _suffer punishment_
  _so great_                 _liberty_
  _equal_                    _sun_
  _in truth, indeed_         _sustain_
  _that_ (yonder)            _take up, assume_
  _a certain_                _hour_
  _fall down_                _reign, realm_
  _owe, ought_               _messenger_
  _measure, mode_            _part, direction_
  _eye_                      _body_
  _name_                     _harbor_
  _wave, billow_             _faith, protection_
  _thing, matter_            _of himself_
  _exploits_                 _also, too_
  _republic_                 _sufficiently_
  _prosperity_               _you_ (plur.)
  _burn_                     _peace_
  _that_ (of yours)          _back_
  _before_                   _turn the back, retreat_
  _light_                    _night_
  _daybreak_                 _hand, force_
  _winter_                   _lake_
  _attack_                   _day_
  _line of battle_           _commit, intrust_
  _army_                     _a few only_
  _drill, train_             _sharp, eager_
  _join battle_              _we_
  _house, home_              _turn_
  _midday_                   _you_ (sing.)
  _wonderful_                _I_
  _brave_                    _signal_
  _almost_                   _summer_
  _the same_                 _cavalry_
  _some, any_                _wound_
  _if any one_               _horn, wing_
  _self, very_               _country_
  _not even_                 _second, favorable_
  _easy_                     _formerly, once_
  _dense_                    _short_
  _point out, explain_       _voice_
  _difficult_                _arrival_
  _first_                    _come under the protection of_
  _arrange, station_         _nothing_
  _please_                   _swift_
  _year_

_523._ Review Questions. By what declensions are Latin adjectives
declined? What can you say about the stem of adjectives of the third
declension? Into what classes are these adjectives divided? How can you
tell to which of the classes an adjective belongs? Decline /acer, omnis,
par\. What are the nominative endings and genders of nouns of the fourth
or u-declension? What nouns are feminine by exception? Decline
/adventus, lacus, cornu, domus\. Give the rules for the ordinary
expression of the _place to which_, the _place from which_, the _place
in which_. What special rules apply to names of towns, small islands,
and /rus\? What is the locative case? What words have a locative case?
What is the form of the locative case? Translate _Galba lives at home,
Galba lives at Rome, Galba lives at Pompeii_. What is the rule for
gender in the fifth or /e:\-declension? Decline /dies\, /res\. When is
the long /e:\ shortened? What can you say about the plural of the fifth
declension? Decline /tuba\, /servus\, /pilum\, /ager\, /puer\, /miles\,
/consul\, /flumen\, /caedes\, /animal\. How is the _time when_
expressed? Name the classes of pronouns and define each class. Decline
/ego, tu, is\. What are the reflexives of the first and second persons?
What is the reflexive of the third person? Decline it. Translate _I see
myself, he sees himself, he sees him_. Decline /ipse\. How is /ipse\
used? Decline /idem\. Decline /hic\, /iste\, /ille\. Explain the use of
these words. Name and translate the commoner indefinite pronouns.
Decline /aliquis\, /quisquam\, /quidam\, /quisque\.


VII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LIII-LX

_524._ Give the English of the following words:

  NOUNS
    FIRST DECLENSION
    /aquila\        /fossa\

    SECOND DECLENSION
    /aedificium\    /negotium\
    /captivus\      /spatium\
    /concilium\     /vallum\
    /imperium\

    THIRD DECLENSION
    /agmen\         /mors\
    /celeritas\     /mulier\
    /civitas\       /multitudo\
    /clamor\        /munitio\
    /cohors\        /nemo\
    /difficultas\   /obses\
    /explorator\    /opinio\
    /gens\          /regio\
    /latitudo\      /rumor\
    /longitudo\     /scelus\
    /magnitudo\     /servitus\
    /mens\          /timor\
    /mercator\      /valles\
    /mille\

    FOURTH DECLENSIONS
    /aditus\        /passus\
    /commeatus\

    FIFTH DECLENSION
    /res frumentaria\

  ADJECTIVES
    FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
    /aequus\          /pessimus\
    /bini\            /plurimus\
    /ducenti\         /posterus\
    /duo\             /primus\
    /exterus\          reliquus
    /inferus\         /secundus\
    /maximus\         /singuli\
    /medius\          /superus\
    /minimus\         /tardus\
    /opportunus\      /terni\
    /optimus\         /unus\

    THIRD DECLENSION
    /alacer, alacris, alacre\
    /audax, audax\
    /celer, celeris, celere\
    /citerior, citerius\
    /difficilis, difficile\
    /dissimilis, dissimile\
    /facilis, facile\
     gracilis, gracile
    /humilis, humile\
    /ingens, ingens\
    /interior, interius\
    /lenis, lene\
    /maior, maius\
    /melior, melius\
    /minor, minus\
    /nobilis, nobile\
    /peior, peius\
     ----, /plus\
    /prior, prius\
    /recens, recens\
    /similis, simile\
    /tres, tria\
    /ulterior, ulterius\

  ADVERBS
  /acriter\          /optime\
  /audacter\         /parum\
  /bene\             /paulo\
  /facile\           /plurimum\
  /fere\             /prope\
  /fortiter\         /propius\
  /magis\            /proxime\
  /magnopere\        /quam\
  /maxime\           /statim\
  /melius\           /tam\
  /minime\           /undique\
  /multum\

  CONJUNCTIONS
  /atque, ac\        /qua de causa\
  /aut\              /quam ob rem\
  /aut ... aut\      /simul atque or\
  /et ... et\        /simul ac
  /nam\\

  PREPOSITIONS
  /circum\
  /contra\
  /inter\
  /ob\
  /trans\

  VERBS
    CONJ. I         CONJ. II
    /conor\         /obtineo\
    /hortor\        /perterreo\
    /moror\         /valeo\
    /vexo\          /vereor\

    CONJ. III
    /abdo\          /patior\
    /cado\           premo
    /cognosco\      /proficiscor\
    /consequor\     /progredior\
    /contendo\      /quaero\
    /cupio\         /recipio\
    /curro\         /relinquo\
    /dedo\          /revertor\
    /defendo\       /sequor\
     egredior        statuo
    /incendo\        subsequor
    /incolo\        /suscipio\
    /insequor\      /trado\
    /occido\        /traho\

    CONJ. IV
    /orior\         pervenio\

_525._ Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the
gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs:

  _on account of_           _width_
  _nearly_                  _scout_
  _keenly, sharply_         _cohort_
  _thousand_                _tribe, nation_
  _two_                     _business_
  _opportune_               _by a little_
  _remaining_               _somewhat_
  _above_ (adj.)            _crime_
  _next_                    _difficult_
  _grain supply_            _equal_
  _pace_                    _move forward, advance_
  _shout_ (noun)            _further_
  _from all sides_          _multitude_
  _against_                 _woman_
  _around_                  _desire_ (verb)
  _three_                   _give over, surrender_
  _line of march_           _kill_
  _manor_                   _overtake_
  _region_                  _hasten, strive_
  _fortification_           _hide_
  _eagle_                   _one_
  _almost_                  _first_
  _boldly_                  _second, favorable_
  _bravely_                 _two hundred_
  _across_                  _former_
  _between, among_          _inner_
  _hither_ (adj.)           _middle_
  _so_                      _low_
  _less_                    _outward_
  _more_                    _three by three_
  _most_                    _provisions_
  _worst_                   _speed_
  _difficulty_              _ditch_
  _hostage_                 _wherefore_ or _therefore_
  _death_                   _length_
  _command, power_          _for this reason_
  _captive_                 _fear_ (noun)
  _or_                      _return_
  _and_                     _inquire_
  _arrive_                  _set out_
  _attempt, try_            _move out, disembark_
  _fear_ (verb)             _leave_
  _worse_                   _abandon_
  _greater, larger_         _be strong_
  _two by two_              _receive, recover_
  _least_ (adv.)            _terrify, frighten_
  _opinion, expectation_    _dwell_
  _defend_                  _state, citizenship_
  _approach, entrance_      _valley_
  _trader_                  _slavery_
  _magnitude, size_         _greatly_
  _council, assembly_       _best of all_ (adv.)
  _space, room_             _better_ (adv.)
  _either ... or_            _well_ (adv.)
  _rise, arise_             _very much_
  _suffer, allow_           _much_
  _press hard_              _unlike_
  _fall_                    _like_ (adj.)
  _surrender_               _slow_
  _set fire to_             _very greatly, exceedingly_
  _possess, hold_           _building_
  _delay_ (verb)            _mind_ (noun)
  _nearest_ (adv.)          _easily_
  _nearer_ (adv.)           _easy_
  _better_ (adj.)           _recent_
  _well known, noble_       _huge, great_
  _rampart_                 _bold_
  _mild, gentle_            _immediately_
  _swift_                   _as soon as_
  _eager_                   _for_
  _low_ (adj.)              _than_
  _slender_                 _best_ (adj.)
  _one by one_              _greatest_
  _no one_                  _follow close_
  _least_ (adv.)            _encourage_
  _little_ (adv.)           _annoy, ravage_
  _learn, know_             _hide_
  _drag_                    _follow_
  _undertake_               _pursue_
  _run_                     _both ... and_
  _fix, decide_

_526._ Review Questions. What is meant by comparison? In what two ways
may adjectives be compared? Compare /clarus, brevis, velox\, and explain
the formation of the comparative and the superlative. What are the
adverbs used in comparison? Compare /brevis\ by adverbs. Decline the
comparative of /velox\. How are adjectives in -er compared? Compare
/acer\, /pulcher\, /liber\. What are possible translations for the
comparative and superlative? Name the six adjectives that form the
superlative in -limus. Translate in two ways _Nothing is brighter than
the sun_. Give the rule for the ablative with comparatives. Compare
/bonus, magnus, malus, multus, parvus, exterus, inferus, posterus,
superus\. Decline /plus\. Compare /citerior, interior, propior,
ulterior\. Translate _That route to Italy is much shorter_. Give the
rule for the expression of measure of difference. Name five words that
are especially common in this construction. How are adverbs usually
formed from adjectives of the first and second declensions? from
adjectives of the third declension? Compare the adverbs /care\,
/libere\, /fortiter\, /audacter\. What cases of adjectives are sometimes
used as adverbs? What are the adverbs from /facilis\? /multus? primus?
plurimus\? /bonus\? /magnus\? /parvus\? Compare /prope\, /saepe\,
/magnopere\. How are numerals classified? Give the first twenty
cardinals. Decline /unus, duo, tres, mille\. How are the hundreds
declined? What is meant by the partitive genitive? Give the rule for the
partitive genitive. What sort of words are commonly used with this
construction? What construction is used with /quidam\ and cardinal
numbers excepting /mille\? Give the first twenty ordinals. How are they
declined? How are the distributives declined? Give the rule for the
expression of duration of time and extent of space. What is the
difference between the ablative of time and the accusative of time? What
is a deponent verb? Give the synopsis of one. What form always has a
passive meaning? Conjugate /amo\, /moneo\, /rego\, /capio\, /audio\, in
the active and passive.


VIII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LXI-LXIX

_527._ Review the vocabularies of the first seventeen lessons. See
Secs. 502, 503, 506, 507.

_528._ Review Questions. Name the tenses of the subjunctive. What time
is denoted by these tenses? What are the mood signs of the present
subjunctive? How may the imperfect subjunctive be formed? How do the
perfect subjunctive and the future perfect indicative active differ in
form? How is the pluperfect subjunctive active formed? Inflect the
subjunctive active and passive of /curo\, /deleo\, /vinco\, /rapio\,
/munio\. Inflect the subjunctive tenses of /sum\; of /possum\. What are
the tenses of the participles in the active? What in the passive? Give
the active and passive participles of /amo\, /moneo\, /rego\, /capio\,
/audio\. Decline /regens\. What participles do deponent verbs have? What
is the difference in meaning between the perfect participle of a
deponent verb and of one not deponent? Give the participles of /vereor\.
How should participles usually be translated? Conjugate /volo\, /nolo\,
/malo\, /fio\.

What is the difference between the indicative and subjunctive in their
fundamental ideas? How is purpose usually expressed in English? How is
it expressed in Latin? By what words is a Latin purpose clause
introduced? When should /quo\ be used? What is meant by sequence of
tenses? Name the primary tenses of the indicative and of the
subjunctive; the secondary tenses. What Latin verbs are regularly
followed by substantive clauses of purpose? What construction follows
/iubeo\? What construction follows verbs of _fearing_? How is
consequence or result expressed in Latin? How is a result clause
introduced? What words are often found in the principal clause
foreshadowing the coming of a result clause? How may negative purpose be
distinguished from negative result? What is meant by the subjunctive of
characteristic or description? How are such clauses introduced? Explain
the ablative absolute. Why is the ablative absolute of such frequent
occurrence in Latin? Explain the predicate accusative. After what verbs
are two accusatives commonly found? What do these accusatives become
when the verb is passive?

  [Illustration: IMPERATOR MILITES HORTATUR]




SPECIAL VOCABULARIES

The words in heavy type are used in Caesar's "Gallic War."

[Transcriber's Note:

Each chapter's Special Vocabulary was included with its chapter text
in addition to its original location here. Details are given in the
Transcriber's Note at the beginning of the text. In the printed book,
the vocabularies for Lesson IV and Lesson V appeared on the same page;
the Footnote about _conjunctions_ was shared by the two lists.]


LESSON IV, Sec. 39

  NOUNS
   dea, _goddess_ (deity)
   Dia:'na, _Diana_
  /fera\, _a wild beast_ (fierce)
   La:to:'na, _Latona_
  /sagit'ta\, _arrow_

  VERBS
  /est\, _he (she, it) is_; sunt, _they are_
  /necat\, _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_

  CONJUNCTION[A]
  /et\, _and_

  PRONOUNS
  /quis\, interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_
  /cuius\ (pronounced _c[oo]i'y[oo]s_, two syllables), interrog.
    pronoun, gen. sing., _whose?_

    [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts
    of sentences, or sentences.]


LESSON V, Sec. 47

  NOUNS
  /coro:'na\, _wreath, garland, crown_
   fa:'bula, _story_ (fable)
  /pecu:'nia\, _money_ (pecuniary)
  /pugna\, _battle_ (pugnacious)
  /victo:'ria\, _victory_

  VERBS
  /dat\, _he (she, it) gives_
   na:rrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate)

  CONJUNCTION[A]
  /quia\ or /quod\, _because_

  /cui\ (pronounced _c[oo]i_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat.
    sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_

    [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts
    of sentences, or sentences.]


LESSON VI, Sec. 56

  ADJECTIVES
  /bona\, _good_
  /gra:ta\, _pleasing_
  /magna\, _large, great_
  /mala\, _bad, wicked_
  /parva\, _small, little_
  /pulchra\, _beautiful, pretty_
  /so:la\, _alone_

  NOUNS
  ancil'la, _maidservant_
  Iu:lia, _Julia_

  ADVERBS[A]
  /cu:r\, _why_
  /no:n\, _not_

  PRONOUNS
  /mea\, _my_; tua, _thy, your_ (possesives)
  /quid\, interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_

  /-ne\, the question sign, an enclitic (Sec. 16) added to the first
  word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as /amat\, _he
  loves_, but /amat'ne?\ _does he love?_ est, _he is_; /estne?\ _is he?_
  Of course /-ne\ is not used when the sentence contains quis, cu:r, or
  some other interrogative word.

    [Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an
    adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is
    _very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.]


LESSON VII, Sec. 62

  NOUNS
  /casa, -ae\, f., _cottage_
  ce:na, -ae, f., _dinner_
  /galli:'na, -ae\, f., _hen, chicken_
  /i:n'sula, ae\, f., _island_ (pen-insula)

  ADVERBS
  /de-in'de\, _then, in the next place_
  /ubi\, _where_

  PREPOSITION
  /ad\, _to_, with acc. to express motion toward

  PRONOUN
  /quem\, interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_

  VERBS
  ha'bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit)
  /laudat\, _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud)
  /parat\, _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_
  /vocat\, _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites,
    is inviting, does invite_ (vocation)


LESSON VIII, Sec. 69

  NOUNS
  /Italia, -ae\, f., _Italy_
   Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_
  /tuba, -ae\, f., _trumpet_ (tube)
  /via, -ae\, f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct)

  ADJECTIVES
  /alta\, _high, deep_ (altitude)
  /cla:ra\, _clear, bright; famous_
  /la:ta\, _wide_ (latitude)
  /longa\, _long_ (longitude)
  /nova\, _new_ (novelty)


LESSON IX, Sec. 77

  NOUNS
  /bellum, -i:\, n., _war_ (re-bel)
  /co:nstantia, -ae\, f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_
   dominus, -i:, m., _master, lord_ (dominate)
  /equus, -i:\, m., _horse_ (equine)
  /fru:mentum, -i:\, n., _grain_
  /le:ga:tus, -i:\, m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate)
  /Ma:rcus, -i:\, m., _Marcus, Mark_
  /mu:rus, -i:\, m., _wall_ (mural)
  /oppida:nus, -i:\, m., _townsman_
  /oppidum, -i:\, n., _town_
  /pi:lum, -i:\, n., _spear_ (pile driver)
  /servus, -i:\, m., _slave, servant_
   Sextus, -i:, m., _Sextus_

  VERBS
  /cu:rat\, _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc.
  /properat\, _he (she, it) hastens_


LESSON X, Sec. 82

  NOUNS
  /ami:cus, -i:\, m., _friend_ (amicable)
  /Germa:nia, -ae\, f., _Germany_
  /patria, -ae\, f., _fatherland_
  /populus, -i:\, m., _people_
  /Rhe:nus, -i:\, m., _the Rhine_
  /vi:cus, -i:\, m., _village_


LESSON XI, Sec. 86

  NOUNS
  /arma, armo:rum\, n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons
  /fa:ma, -ae\, f., _rumor; reputation, fame_
  /galea, -ae\, f., _helmet_
  /praeda, -ae\, f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory)
  /te:lum, -i:\, n., _weapon of offense, spear_

  ADJECTIVES
  /du:rus, -a, -um\, _hard,  rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_
    (durable)
  /Ro:ma:nus, -a, -um\, _Roman_. As a noun, Ro:ma:nus, -i:, m.,
    _a Roman_


LESSON XII, Sec. 90

  NOUNS
  /fi:lius, fi:li:\, m., _son_ (filial)
   fluvius, fluvi:, m., _river_ (fluent)
  /gladius, gladi:\, m., _sword_ (gladiator)
  /praesidium, praesi'di:\, n., _garrison, guard, protection_
  /proelium, proeli:\, n., _battle_

  ADJECTIVES
  /fi:nitimus, -a, -um\, _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_.
    As a noun, fi:nitimi:, -o:rum, m., plur., _neighbors_
  /Germa:nus, -a, -um\, _German_. As a noun, Germa:nus, -i:, m.,
    _a German_
  /multus, -a, -um\, _much_; plur., _many_

  ADVERB
  /saepe\, _often_


LESSON XIII, Sec. 95

  NOUNS
  /ager, agri:\, m., _field_ (acre)
  /co:pia, -ae\, f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops,
    forces_
  /Corne:lius, Corne:'li:\, m., _Cornelius_
  /lo:ri:'ca, -ae\, f., _coat of mail, corselet_
  /praemium, praemi:\, n., _reward, prize_ (premium)
  /puer, pueri:\, m., _boy_ (puerile)
  /Ro:ma, -ae\, f., _Rome_
  /scu:tum, -i:\, n., _shield_ (escutcheon)
  /vir, viri:\, m., _man, hero_ (virile)

  ADJECTIVES
  /legio:na:rius, -a, -um\,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_.
    As a noun, legio:na:rii:, -o:rum, m., plur., _legionary soldiers_
  /li:ber, li:bera, li:berum\, _free_ (liberty) As a noun. li:beri:,
    -o:rum, m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_)
  /pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum\, _pretty, beautiful_

  PREPOSITION
  /apud\, _among_, with acc.

  CONJUNCTION
  /sed\, _but_

    [Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in -ius
    ends in -ii: and the vocative in -ie; not in -i:, as in nouns.]


LESSON XIV, Sec. 99

  NOUNS
  /auxilium, auxi'li:\, n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary)
  /castrum, -i:\, n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_)
  /cibus, -i:\, m., _food_
  /co:nsilium, co:nsi'li:\, n., _plan_ (counsel)
  /di:ligentia, -ae\, f., _diligence, industry_
   magister, magistri:, m., _master, teacher_[A]

  ADJECTIVES
  /aeger, aegra, aegrum\, _sick_
  /cre:ber, cre:bra, cre:brum\, _frequent_
  /miser, misera, miserum\, _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser)

    [Footnote A: Observe that dominus, as distinguished from
    /magister\, means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.]


LESSON XV, Sec. 107

  NOUNS
  /carrus, -i:\, m., _cart, wagon_
  /inopia, -ae\, f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of co:pia
  /studium, studi:\, n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study)

  ADJECTIVES
  /arma:tus, -a, -um\, _armed_
  /i:nfi:rmus, -a, -um\, _week, feeble_ (infirm)
   vali'dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_

  VERB
  /ma:tu:rat\, _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat

  ADVERB
  /iam\, _already, now_

  /-que\, conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. Sec. 16) and always added
  to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as arma te:la'que,
  _arms and weapons_.


LESSON XVII, Sec. 117

  NOUNS
  /agri: cultu:ra, -ae\, f., _agriculture_
  /Gallia, -ae\, f., _Gaul_
  /domicili:um, domi:ci'li:\, n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_
  /Gallus, -i\, m., _a Gaul_
  /lacrima, -ae\, f., _tear_
  /fe:mina, -ae\, f., _woman_ (female)
  /numerus, -i:\, m., _number_ (numeral)

  ADJECTIVE
  /ma:tu:rus, -a, -um\, _ripe, mature_

  ADVERB
   quo:, _whither_

  VERBS
   arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable)
  /de:si:derat\, _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc.

  CONJUNCTION
  /an\, _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as
  _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, Estne Romanus an Gallus?


LESSON XVIII, Sec. 124

  NOUNS
   lu:dus, -i:, m., _school_
  /socius, soci:\, m., _companion, ally_ (social)

  ADJECTIVES
  /i:ra:tus, -a, -um\, _angry, furious_ (irate)
  /laetus, -a, -um\, _happy, glad_ (social)

  ADVERBS
   hodie:, _to-day_
  /ibi\, _there, in that place_
   mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future
  /nunc\, _now, the present moment_
  /nu:per\, _lately, recently_, of the immediate past


LESSON XX, Sec. 136

  NOUNS
  /fo:rma, -ae\, f., _form, beauty_
  /regi:na, -ae\, f., _queen_ (regal)
  /poena, -ae\, f., _punishment, penalty_
   superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_
  /potentia, -ae\, f., _power_ (potent)
  /tri:sti:ti:a, -ae\, f., _sadness, sorrow_

  ADJECTIVES
  /septem\, indeclinable, _seven_
  /superbus, -a, -um\, _proud, haughty_ (superb)

  CONJUNCTIONS
  /no:n so:lum ... sed etiam\, _not only ... but also_


LESSON XXI, Sec. 140

  NOUNS
   sacrum, -i:, n., _sacrifice, offering, rite_
  /verbum, -i:\, n., _word_ (verb)

  VERBS
   sedeo:, -e:re, _sit_ (sediment)
   volo:, -a:re, _fly_ (volatile)

  ADJECTIVES
  /interfectus, -a, -um\, _slain_
  /molestus, -a, -um\, _troublesome, annoying_ (molest)
  /perpetuus, -a, -um\, _perpetual, continuous_

  /ego\, personal pronoun, _I_ (egotism). Always emphatic in the
    nominative.


LESSON XXII, Sec. 146

  NOUNS
  /discipli:na, -ae\, f., _training, culture, discipline_
  /Ga:ius, Ga:i:\, m., _Caius_, a Roman first name
  /o:rna:mentum, -i:\, n., _ornament, jewel_
   Tiberius, Tibe'ri:, m., _Tiberius_, a Roman first name

  VERB
  /doceo:, -e:re\, _teach_ (doctrine)

  ADVERB
  /maxime:\, _most of all, especially_

  ADJECTIVE
  /anti:quus, -qua, -quum\, _old, ancient_ (antique)


LESSON XXVII, Sec. 168

  NOUNS
  /a:la, -ae\, f., _wing_
  /deus, -i:\, m., _god_ (deity)[A]
  /monstrum, -i:\, n., _omen, prodigy; monster_
   o:ra:culum, -i:, n., _oracle_

  VERB
  /va:sto:, -a:re\, _lay waste, devastate_

  ADJECTIVES
  /commo:tus, -a, -um\, _moved, excited_
  /maximus, -a, -um\, _greatest_ (maximum)
  /saevus, -a, -um\, _fierce, savage_

  ADVERBS
  /ita\, _thus, in this way, as follows_
  /tum\, _then, at that time_

    [Footnote A: For the declension of deus, see Sec. 468]


LESSON XXVIII, Sec. 171

  VERBS
  /respondeo:, -e:re\, _respond, reply_
  /servo:, -a:re\, _save, preserve_

  ADJECTIVE
  /ca:rus, -a, -um\, _dear_ (cherish)

  CONJUNCTION
  /autem\, _but, moreover, now_. Usually stands second, never first

  NOUN
  /vi:ta, -ae\, f., _life_ (vital)


LESSON XXIX, Sec. 176

  VERB
  /supero:, -a:re\, _conquer, overcome_ (insuperable)

  NOUNS
  /cu:ra, -ae\, f., _care, trouble_
  /locus, -i:\, m., _place, spot_ (location). Locus is neuter in the
    plural and is declined loca, -o:rum, etc.
  /peri:culum, -i:\, n., _danger, peril_

  ADVERBS
  /semper\, _always_
  /tamen\, _yet, nevertheless_

  PREPOSITIONS
  /de:\, with abl., _down from.; concerning_
  /per\, with acc., _through_

  CONJUNCTION
  /si\, _if_


LESSON XXX, Sec. 182

  VERBS
  /absum, abesse\, irreg., _be away, be absent, be distant_, with
    separative abl.
  /adpropinquo:, -a:re\, _draw near, approach_ (propinquity), with
    dative[A]
  /contineo:, -e:re\, _hold together, hem in, keep_ (contain)
  /disce:do:, -ere\, _depart, go away, leave_, with separative abl.
  /egeo:, -e:re\, _lack, need, be without_, with separative abl.
  /interficio:, -ere\, _kill_
  /prohibeo:, -e:re\, _restrain, keep from_ (prohibit)
  /vulnero:, -a:re\, _wound_ (vulnerable)

  NOUNS
  /pro:vincia, -ae\, f., _province_
  /vi:num, -i:\, n., _wine_

  ADJECTIVE
  /de:fessus, -a, -um\, _weary, worn out_

  ADVERB
  /longe:\, _far, by far, far away_

    [Footnote A: This verb governs the dative because the idea of
    _nearness to_ is stronger than that of _motion to_. If the latter
    idea were the stronger, the word would be used with ad and the
    accusative.]


LESSON XXXI, Sec. 188

  NOUNS
   aurum, -i:, n., _gold_ (oriole)
  /mora, -ae\, f., _delay_
  /na:vigium, na:vi'gi:\, n., _boat, ship_
  /ventus, -i:\, m., _wind_ (ventilate)

  VERB
  /na:vigo:, -a:re\, _sail_ (navigate)

  ADJECTIVES
   attentus, -a, -um, _attentive, careful_
  /dubius, -a, -um\, _doubtful_ (dubious)
   perfidus, -a, -um, _faithless, treacherous_ (perfidy)

  ADVERB
  /antea:\, _before, previously_

  PREPOSITION
  /sine\, with abl., _without_


LESSON XXXII, Sec. 193

  NOUNS
  /animus, -i:\, m., _mind, heart; spirit, feeling_ (animate)
  /bracchium, bracchi:\, n., _forearm, arm_
  /porta, -ae\, f., _gate_ (portal)

  ADJECTIVES
  /adversus, -a, -um\, _opposite; adverse, contrary_
  /ple:nus, -a, -um\, _full_ (plenty)

  PREPOSITION
  /pro\, with abl., _before; in behalf of; instead of_

  ADVERB
  /diu:\, _for a long time, long_


LESSON XXXIV, Sec. 200

  ADVERBS
  /celeriter\, _quickly_ (celerity)
  /de:nique\, _finally_
  /graviter\, _heavily, severely_ (gravity)
  /subito:\, _suddenly_

  VERB
  /reporto:, -a:re\, -a:vi:, _bring back, restore; win, gain_ (report)


LESSON XXXVI, Sec. 211

  /dexter, dextra, dextrum\, _right_ (dextrous)
  /sinister, sinistra, sinistrum\, _left_
  /fru:stra:\, adv., _in vain_ (frustrate)

  /gero:, gerere, gessi:, gestus\, _bear, carry on; wear_;
    /bellum gerere\, _to wage war_
  /occupo:, occupa:re, occupa:vi:, occupa:tus\, _seize, take possession
    of_ (occupy)
  /postulo:, postula:re, postula:vi:, postula:tus\, _demand_
    (ex-postulate)
  /recu:so:, recu:sa:re, recu:sa:vi:, recu:sa:tus\, _refuse_
  /sto:, sta:re, steti:, status\, _stand_
  /tempto:, tempta:re, tempta:vi:, tempta:tus\, _try, tempt, test;
    attempt_
  /teneo:, tene:re, tenui:, ----\, _keep, hold_ (tenacious)

  The word ubi, which we have used so much in the sense of _where_ in
  asking a question, has two other uses equally important:

  1. ubi = _when_, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as,
    /Ubi mo:nstrum audi:ve:runt, fu:ge:runt\, _when they heard the
    monster, they fled_

  2. ubi = _where_, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as,
    /Video: oppidum ubi Galba habitat\, _I see the town where Galba
    lives_

  /ubi\ is called a _relative conjunction_ because it is equivalent to
  a relative pronoun. _When_ in the first sentence is equivalent to
  _at the time at which;_ and in the second, _where_ is equivalent
  to _the place in which._


LESSON XXXVII, Sec. 217

  /neque or nec\, conj., _neither_, _nor_, _and ... not_;
    /neque ... neque\, _neither ... nor_
  /castellum, -i:\, n., _redoubt, fort_ (castle)
  /coti:die:\, adv., _daily_

   cesso:, cessa:re, cessa:vi:, cessa:tus, _cease_, with the infin.
  /incipio:, incipere, ince:pi:, inceptus\, _begin_ (incipient),
    with the infin.
  /oppugno:, oppugna:re, oppugna:vi:, oppugna:tus\, _storm, assail_
  /peto:, petere, petivi or petii:, peti:tus\, _aim at, assail, storm,
    attack; seek, ask_ (petition)
  /po:no:, po:nere, posui:, positus\, _place, put_ (position);
    /castra po:nere\, _to pitch camp_
  /possum, posse, potui:, ----\, _be able, can_ (potent), with the
    infin.
  /veto:, veta:re, vetui:, vetitus\, _forbid_ (veto), vith the infin.;
    opposite of iubeo:, _command_
  /vinco:, vincere, vi:ci:, victus\, _conquer_ (in-vincible)
  /vi:vo:, vi:vere, vi:xi:, ----\, _live, be alive_ (re-vive)


LESSON XXXIX, Sec. 234

  /barbarus, -a, -um\, _strange, foreign, barbarous_. As a noun,
    /barbari:, -o:rum\, m., plur., _savages, barbarians_
  /dux, ducis\, m., _leader_ (duke). Cf. the verb du:co:
  /eques, equitis\, m., _horseman, cavalryman_ (equestrian)
   iu:dex, iu:dicis, _m., judge_
  /lapis, lapidis\, m., _stone_ (lapidary)
  /mi:les, mi:litis\, m., _soldier_ (militia)
  /pedes, peditis\, m., _foot soldier_ (pedestrian)
  /pe:s, pedis\,[A] m., _foot_ (pedal)
  /pri:nceps, pri:ncipis\, m., _chief_ (principal)
  /re:x, re:gis\, m., _king_ (regal)
  /summus, -a, -um\, _highest, greatest_ (summit)
  /virtu:s, virtu:tis\, f., _manliness, courage_ (virtue)

    [Footnote A: Observe that e is _long_ in the nom. sing, and
    _short_ in the other cases.]


LESSON XL, Sec. 237

  /Caesar, -aris\, m., _Caesar_
  /capti:vus, -i:\, m., _captive, prisoner_
  /co:nsul, -is\, m., _consul_
  /fra:ter, fra:tris\, m., _brother_ (fraternity)
  /homo:, hominis\, m., _man, human being_
  /impedi:mentum, -i:\, n., _hindrance_ (impediment); plur.
    /impedi:menta, -o:rum\, _baggage_
  /impera:tor, impera:to:ris\, m., _commander in chief, general_
    (emperor)
  /legio:, legio:nis\, f., _legion_
  /ma:ter, ma:tris\, f., _mother_ (maternal)
  /o:rdo:, o:rdinis\, m., _row, rank_ (order)
  /pater, patris\, m., _father_ (paternal)
  /salu:s, salu:tis\, f., _safety_ (salutary)
  /soror, soro:ris\, f., _sister_ (sorority)


LESSON XLI, Sec. 239

  /calamita:s, calamita:tis\, f., _loss, disaster, defeat_ (calamity)
  /caput, capitis\, n., _head_ (capital)
  /flu:men, flu:minis\, n., _river_ (flume)
  /labor, labo:ris\, m., _labor, toil_
  /opus, operis\, n., _work, task_
  /o:ra:tor, o:ra:to:ris\, m., _orator_
  /ri:pa, -ae\, f., _bank_ (of a stream)
  /tempus, temporis\, n., _time_ (temporal)
  /terror, terro:ris\, m., _terror, fear_
  /victor, victo:ris\, m., _victor_

  /accipio:, accipere, acce:pi:, acceptus\, _receive, accept_
  /co:nfirmo:, co:nfi:rma:re, co:nfi:rma:vi:, co:nfi:rma:tus\,
    _strengthen_ = _establish, encourage_ (confirm)


LESSON XLIII, Sec. 245

  /animal, anima:lis (-ium[A])\, n., _animal_
  /avis, avis (-ium)\, f., _bird_ (aviation)
  /caede:s, caedis (-ium)\, f., _slaughter_
  calcar, calca:ris (-ium), n., _spur_
  /ci:vis, ci:vis (-ium)\, m. and f., _citizen_ (civic)
  /clie:ns, clientis (-ium)\, m., _retainer, dependent_ (client)
  /fi:nis, fi:nis (-ium)\, m., _end, limit_ (final);
    plur., _country, territory_
  /hostis, hostis (-ium)\, m. and f., _enemy_ in war (hostile).
    Distinguish from inimi:cus, which means a _personal_ enemy
  /ignis, ignis (-ium)\, m., _fire_ (ignite)
  /i:nsigne, i:nsignis (-ium)\, n. _decoration, badge_ (ensign)
  /mare, maris (-ium[B])\, n., _sea_ (marine)
  /na:vis, na:vis (-ium)\, f., _ship_ (naval);
  /na:vis longa\, _man-of-war_
  /turris, turris (-ium)\, f., _tower_ (turret)
  /urbs, urbis (-ium)\, f., _city_ (suburb). An /urbs\ is larger than an
    /oppidum\.

    [Footnote A: The genitive plural ending -ium is written to mark the
    i-stems.]

    [Footnote B: The genitive plural of mare is not in use.]


LESSON XLIV, Sec. 249

  /arbor, arboris\, f., _tree_ (arbor)
  /collis, collis (-ium)\, m., _hill_
  /de:ns, dentis (-ium)\, m., _tooth_ (dentist)
   fo:ns, fontis (-ium), m.. _fountain, spring; source_
  /iter, itineris\, n., _march, journey, route_ (itinerary)
  /me:nsis, me:nsis (-ium)\, m., _month_
  /moenia, -ium\, n., plur., _walls, fortifications_. Cf. mu:rus
  /mo:ns, montis (-ium)\, m., _mountain_;
    /summus mo:ns\, _top of the mountain_
  /numquam\, adv., _never_
  /po:ns, pontis\, m., _bridge_ (pontoon)
  /sanguis, sanguinis\, m., blood (sanguinary)
  /summus, -a, -um\, _highest, greatest_ (summit)
  /tra:ns\, prep, with acc., _across_ (transatlantic)
  /vi:s (vi:s)\, gen. plur. /virium\, f. _strength, force, violence_
    (vim)


LESSON XLV, Sec. 258

  /a:cer, a:cris, a:cre\, _sharp, keen, eager_ (acrid)
  /brevis, breve\, _short, brief_
  /difficilis, difficile\, _difficult_
  /facilis, facile\, _facile, easy_
  /fortis, forte\, _brave_ (fortitude)
  /gravis, grave\, _heavy, severe, serious_ (grave)
  /omnis, omne\, _every, all_ (omnibus)
  /pa:r\, gen. /paris\, _equal_ (par)
  /pauci:, -ae, -a\, _few, only a few_ (paucity)
  /secundus, -a, -um\, _second; favorable_, opposite of adversus
  /signum, -i:\, n., _signal, sign, standard_
  /ve:lo:x\, gen. /ve:lo:cis\, _swift_ (velocity)

  /conloco:, conloca:re, conloca:vi:, conloca:tus\, _arrange, station,
    place_ (collocation)
  /de:mo:nstro:, de:mo:nstra:re, de:mo:nstra:vi:, de:mo:nstra:tus\,
    _point out, explain_ (demonstrate)
  /mando:, manda:re, manda:vi:, manda:tus\, _commit, intrust_ (mandate)


LESSON XLVI, Sec. 261

  /adventus, -u:s\, m., _approach, arrival_ (advent)
  /ante\, prep, with acc., _before_ (ante-date)
  /cornu:, -u:s\, n., _horn, wing_ of an army (cornucopia);
    /a: dextro: cornu:\, _on the right wing_;
    /a: sinistro: cornu:\, _on the left wing_
  /equita:tus, -u:s\, m., _cavalry_
  /exercitus, -u:s\, m., _army_
  /impetus, -u:s\, m., _attack_ (impetus);
    /impetum facere in\, with acc., _to make an attack on_
  /lacus, -u:s\, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus, m., _lake_
  /manus, -u:s\, f., _hand; band, force_ (manual)
  /portus, -u:s\, m., _harbor_ (port)
  /post\, prep, with acc., _behind, after_ (post-mortem)

  /cremo:, crema:re, crema:vi:, crema:tus\, _burn_ (cremate)
  /exerceo:, exerce:re, exercui:, exercitus\, _practice, drill, train_
    (exercise)


LESSON XLVII, Sec. 270

   Athe:nae, -a:rum, f., plur., _Athens_
   Corinthus, -i:, f., _Corinth_
  /domus, -u:s\, locative /domi:\, f., _house, home_ (dome).
    Cf. domicilium
  /Gena:va, -ae\, f., _Geneva_
   Pompe:ii, -o:rum, m., plur., _Pompeii_, a city in Campania. See map
  /propter\, prep. with acc., _on account of, because of_
   ru:s, ru:ris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. ru:ra, n., _country_
    (rustic)
  /tergum, tergi:\, n., _back_; a: tergo:, _behind, in the rear_
  /vulnus, vulneris\, n., _wound_ (vulnerable)

  /committo:, committere, commi:si:, commissus\, _intrust, commit;_
    /proelium committere\, _join battle_
  /convoco:, convoca:re, convoca:vi:, convoca:tus\, _call together,
    summon_ (convoke)
  /timeo:, time:re, timui:, ----\, _fear; be afraid_ (timid)
  /verto:, vertere, verti:, versus\, _turn, change_ (convert);
    /terga vertere\, _to turn the backs_, hence _to retreat_


LESSON XLVIII, Sec. 276

  /acie:s, -e:i:\, f., _line of battle_
  /aesta:s, aesta:tis\, f., _summer_
  /annus, -i:\, m., _year_ (annual)
  /die:s, die:i:\, m., _day_ (diary)
  /fide:s, fidei:\, no plur., f., _faith, trust; promise, word;
    protection_; in fidem veni:re, _to come under the protection_
  /fluctus, -u:s\, m. _wave, billow_ (fluctuate)
  /hiems, hiemis\, f., _winter_
  /ho:ra, -ae\, f., _hour_
  /lu:x, lu:cis\, f., _light_ (lucid); pri:ma lux, _daybreak_
  /meri:die:s\, acc. -em, abl. -e:, no plur., m., _midday_
    (meridian)
  /nox, noctis (-ium)\, f., _night_ (nocturnal)
  /pri:mus, -a, -um\, _first_ (prime)
  /re:s, rei:\, f., _thing, matter_ (real);
    /re:s gestae\, _deeds, exploits_ (lit. _things performed_);
    /re:s adversae\, _adversity_;
    /re:s secundae\, _prosperity_
  /spe:s, spei:\, f., _hope_


LESSON XLIX, Sec. 283

  /ami:citia, -ae\, f., _friendship_ (amicable)
  /itaque\, conj., _and so, therefore, accordingly_
  /littera, -ae\, f., _a letter_ of the alphabet;
    plur., _a letter, an epistle_
  /metus, metu:s\, m., _fear_
  /nihil\, indeclinable, n., _nothing_ (nihilist)
  /nu:ntius, nu:nti:\, m., _messenger_. Cf. nu:ntio:
  /pa:x, pa:cis\, f., _peace_ (pacify)
  /re:gnum, -i:\, n., _reign, sovereignty, kingdom_
  /supplicum, suppli'ci:\, n., _punishment_;
    /supplicum su:mere de:\, with abl., _inflict punishment on_;
    /supplicum dare\, _suffer punishment_. Cf. poena

  /placeo:, place:re, placui:, placitus\, _be pleasing to, please_,
    with dative. Cf. Sec. 154
  /su:mo:, su:mere, su:mpsi:, su:mptus\, _take up, assume_
  /sustineo:, sustine:re, sustinui:, sustentus\, _sustain_


LESSON L, Sec. 288

  /corpus, corporis\, n., _body_ (corporal)
  /de:nsus, -a, -um\, _dense_
  /i:dem, e'adem, idem\, demonstrative pronoun, _the same_ (identity)
  /ipse, ipsa, ipsum\, intensive pronoun, _self; even, very_
  /mi:rus, -a, -um\, _wonderful, marvelous_ (miracle)
  /o:lim\, adv., _formerly, once upon a time_
  /pars, partis (-ium)\, f., _part, region, direction_
  /quoque\, adv., _also_. Stands _after_ the word which it emphasizes
  /so:l, so:lis\, m., _sun_ (solar)
  /ve:rus, -a, -um\, _true, real_ (verity)

  /de:beo:, de:be:re, de:bui:, de:bitus\, _owe, ought_ (debt)
  /e:ripio:, e:ripere, e:ripui:, e:reptus\, _snatch from_


LESSON LI, Sec. 294

  /hic, haec, hoc\, demonstrative pronoun, _this_ (of mine);
    _he, she, it_
  /ille, illa, illud\, demonstrative pronoun _that_ (yonder);
    _he, she, it_
  /invi:sus, -a, -um\, _hateful, detested_, with dative Cf. Sec. 143
  /iste, ista, istud\, demonstrative pronoun, _that_ (of yours);
    _he, she, it_
  /li:berta:s, -a:tis\, f., _liberty_
  /modus, -i:\, m., _measure; manner, way, mode_
  /no:men, no:minis\, n., _name_ (nominate)
  /oculus, -i:\, m., _eye_ (oculist)
  /pri:stinus, -a, -um\, _former, old-time_ (pristine)
  /pu:blicus, -a, -um\, _public, belonging to the state;_
    /re:s pu:blica, rei: pu:blicae\, f., _the commonwealth, the state,
    the republic_
  /vesti:gium, vesti:'gi:\, n., _footprint, track; trace, vestige_
  /vo:x, vo:cis\, f., _voice_


LESSON LII, Sec. 298

  /incolumis, -e\, _unharmed_
  /ne: ... quidem\, adv., _not even_. The emphatic word stands between
    /ne:\ and quidem
  /nisi\, conj., _unless, if ... not_
  /paene\, adv., _almost_ (pen-insula)
  /satis\, adv., _enough, sufficiently_ (satisfaction)
  /tantus, -a, -um\, _so great_
  /ve:ro:\, adv., _truly, indeed, in fact_. As a conj. _but, however_,
    usually stands second, never first.

  /de:cido:, de:cidere, de:cidi:, ----\, _fall down_ (deciduous)
  /de:silio:, de:sili:re, de:silui:, de:sultus\, _leap down, dismount_
  /maneo:, mane:re, ma:nsi:, ma:nsu:rus\, _remain_
  /tra:du:co:, tra:du:cere, tra:du:xi:, tra:ductus\, _lead across_


LESSON LIII, Sec. 306

  /aquila, -ae\, f., _eagle_ (aquiline)
  /auda:x\, gen. /auda:cis\, adj., _bold, audacious_
  /celer, celeris, celere\, _swift, quick_ (celerity). Cf. ve:lo:x
  /explo:rato:r, -o:ris\, m., _scout, spy_ (explorer)
  /inge:ns\, gen. /ingentis\, adj., _huge, vast_
  /medius, -a, -um\, _middle, middle part of_ (medium)
  /me:ns, mentis (-ium)\, f., _mind_ (mental). Cf. animus
  /opportu:nus, -a, -um\, _opportune_
  /quam\, adv., _than_. With the superlative quam gives the force of
    _as possible_, as quam auda:cissimi: viri:, _men as bold as
    possible_
  /recens\, gen. /recentis\, adj., _recent_
  /tam\, adv., _so_. Always with an adjective or adverb, while ita is
    generally used with a verb

  /quaero:, quaerere, quaesi:vi:, quaesi:tus\, _ask, inquire, seek_
    (question). Cf. peto:


LESSON LIV, Sec. 310

  /alacer, alacris, alacre\, _eager, spirited, excited_ (alacrity)
  /celerita:s, -a:tis\, f., _speed_ (celerity)
  /cla:mor, cla:mo:ris\, m., _shout, clamor_
  /le:nis, le:ne\, _mild, gentle_ (lenient)
  /mulier, muli'eris\, f., _woman_
  /multitu:do:, multitu:dinis\, f., _multitude_
  /ne:mo:\, dat. /ne:mini:\, acc. /ne:minem\ (gen. /nu:lli:us\,
    abl. /nu:llo:\, from /nu:llus\), no plur., m. and f., _no one_
  /no:bilis, no:bile\, _well known, noble_
  /noctu:\, adv. (an old abl.), _by night_ (nocturnal)
  /statim\, adv., _immediately, at once_
  /subito:\, adv., _suddenly_
  /tardus, -a, -um\, _slow_ (tardy)
  /cupio:, cupere, cupi:vi:, cupi:tus\, _desire, wish_ (cupidity)


LESSON LV, Sec. 314

  /aedificium, aedifi'ci:\, n., _building, dwelling_ (edifice)
  /imperium, impe'ri:\, n., _command, chief power; empire_
  /mors, mortis (-ium)\, f., _death_ (mortal)
  /reliquus, -a, -um\, _remaining, rest of_. As a noun, m. and n. plur.,
    _the rest_ (relic)
  /scelus, sceleris\, n., _crime_
  /servitu:s, -u:tis\, f., _slavery_ (servitude)
  /valle:s, vallis (-ium)\, f., _valley_

  /abdo:, abdere, abdidi:, abditus\, _hide_
  /contendo:, contendere, contendi:, contentus\, _strain, struggle;
    hasten_ (contend)
  /occi:do:, occi:dere, occi:di:, occi:sus\, _cut down, kill_.
    Cf. /neco:\, /interficio:\
  /perterreo:, perterre:re, perterrui:, perterritus\, _terrify,
    frighten_
  /recipio:, recipere, rece:pi:, receptus\, _receive, recover_;
    /se: recipere\, _betake one's self, withdraw, retreat_
  /tra:do:, tra:dere, tra:didi:, tra:ditus\, _give over, surrender,
     deliver_ (traitor)


LESSON LVI, Sec. 318

  /aditus, -u:s\, m., _approach, access; entrance_
  /ci:vita:s, ci:vita:tis\, f., _citizenship; body of citizens, state_
     (city)
  /inter\, prep, with acc., _between, among_ (interstate commerce)
  /nam\, conj., _for_
  /obses, obsidis\, m. and f., _hostage_
  /paulo:\, adv. (abl. n. of /paulus\), _by a little, somewhat_

  /incolo:, incolere, incolui:, ----\, transitive, _inhabit_;
    intransitive, _dwell_. Cf. habito:, vi:vo:
  /relinquo:, relinquere, reli:qui:, relictus\, _leave, abandon_
    (relinquish)
  /statuo:, statuere, statui:, statu:tus\, _fix, decide_ (statute),
    usually with infin.


LESSON LVII, Sec. 326

  /aequus, -a, -um\, _even, level; equal_
  /cohors, cohortis (-ium)\, f., _cohort_, a tenth part of a legion,
    about 360 men
  /curro:, currere, cucurri:, cursus\, _run_ (course)
  /difficulta:s, -a:tis\, f., _difficulty_
  /fossa, -ae\, f., _ditch_ (fosse)
  /ge:ns, gentis (-ium)\, f., _race, tribe, nation_ (Gentile)
  /nego:tium, nego:ti:\, n., _business, affair, matter_ (negotiate)
  /regio:, -o:nis\, f., _region, district_
  /ru:mor, ru:mo:ris\, m., _rumor, report_. Cf. fa:ma
  /simul atque\, conj., _as soon as_

  /suscipio:, suscipere, susce:pi:, susceptus\, _undertake_
  /traho:, trahere, tra:xi:, tra:ctus\, _drag, draw_ (ex-tract)
  /valeo:, vale:re, valui:, valitu:rus\, _be strong_; plu:rimum vale:re,
    _to be most powerful, have great influence_ (value). Cf. validus


LESSON LVIII, Sec. 332

  /commea:tus, -u:s\, m.. _provisions_
  /la:titu:do:, -inis\, f., _width_ (latitude)
  /longitu:do:, -inis\, f., _length_ (longitude)
  /magnitu:do:, -inis\, f., _size, magnitude_
  /merca:tor, merca:to:ris\, m., _trader, merchant_
  /mu:ni:tio:, -o:nis\, f., _fortification_ (munition)
  /spatium, spati:\, n., _room, space, distance; time_

  /cogno:sco:, cogno:scere, cogno:vi:, cognitus\, _learn_;
    in the perfect tenses, _know_ (re-cognize)
  /co:go:, co:gere, coe:gi:, coa:ctus\, _collect; compel_ (cogent)
  /de:fendo:, de:fendere, de:fendi:, de:fe:nsus\, _defend_
  /incendo:, incendere, incendi:, ince:nsus\, _set fire to, burn_
    (incendiary). Cf. cremo:
  /obtineo:, obtine:re, obtinui:, obtentus\, _possess, occupy, hold_
    (obtain)
  /pervenio:, perveni:re, perve:ni:, perventus\, _come through, arrive_


LESSON LIX, Sec. 337

  /agmen, agminis\, n., _line of march, column_;
    /pri:mum agmen\, _the van_;
    /novissimum agmen\, _the rear_
  /atque\, /ac\, conj., _and_; atque is used before vowels and
    consonants, ac before consonants only. Cf. et and -que
  /concilium, conci'li:\, n., _council, assembly_
  /Helve:tii:, -o:rum\, m., _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe
  /passus, passu:s\, m., _a pace_, five Roman feet;
    /mi:lle passuum\, _a thousand (of) paces_, a Roman mile
  /qua: de: causa:\, _for this reason, for what reason_
  /va:llum, -i:\, n., _earth-works, rampart_

  /cado:, cadere, cecidi:, ca:su:rus\, _fall_ (decadence)
  /de:do:, de:dere, de:didi:, de:ditus\, _surrender, give up_;
    with a reflexive pronoun, _surrender one's self, submit_, with the
    dative of the indirect object
  /premo:, premere, pressi:, pressus\, _press hard, harass_
  /vexo:, vexa:re, vexa:vi:, vexa:tus\, _annoy, ravage_ (vex)


LESSON LX, Sec. 341

  /aut\, conj., _or_; aut ... aut, _either ... or_
  /causa:\, abl. of causa, _for the sake of, because of_. Always stands
    _after_ the gen. which modifies it
  /fere:\, adv., _nearly, almost_
  /opi:nio:, -o:nis\, f., _opinion, supposition, expectation_
  /re:s fru:menta:ria, rei: fru:menta:riae\, f. (lit. _the grain
    affair_), _grain supply_
  /timor, -o:ris\, m., _fear_. Cf. timeo:
  /undique\, adv., _from all sides_

  /co:nor, co:na:ri:, co:na:tus sum\, _attempt, try_
  /e:gredior, e:gredi:, e:gressus sum\, _move out, disembark_;
    /pro:gredior\, _move forward, advance_ (egress, progress)
  /moror, mora:ri:, mora:tus sum\, _delay_
  /orior, oriri:, ortus sum\, _arise, spring; begin; be born_
    (_from_) (origin)
  /profici:scor, profici:sci:, profectus sum\, _set out_
  /revertor, reverti:, reversus sum\, _return_ (revert). The forms of
    this verb are usually active, and not deponent, in the perfect
    system. Perf. act., reverti:
  /sequor, sequi:, secu:tus sum\, _follow_ (sequence). Note the
    following compounds of /sequor\ and the force of the different
    prefixes:
    /co:nsequor\ (_follow with_), _overtake_;
    /i:nsequor\ (_follow against_), _pursue_;
    /subsequor\ (_follow under_), _follow close after_




LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY

Translations inclosed within parentheses are not to be used as such;
they are inserted to show etymological meanings.

  [Transcriber's Note:
  The "parentheses" were originally printed as [square brackets]. They
  are rendered here as [[double brackets]].]


A

a: or ab, prep. with abl. _from, by, off_.
  Translated _on_ in a: dextro: cornu:, _on the right wing_;
  a: fronte, _on the front_ or _in front_;
  a: dextra:, _on the right_;
  a: latere, _on the side_; etc.
ab-do:, -ere, -didi:, -ditus, _hide, conceal_
ab-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus, _lead off, lead away_
abs-ci:do:, -ere, -ci:di:,-ci:sus [[ab(s), _off_, + caedo:, _cut_]],
    _cut off_
ab-sum, -esse, a:fui:, a:futu:rus, _be away, be absent, be distant,
    be off_; with a: or ab and abl., Sec. 501.32
ac, conj., see atque
ac-cipio:, -ere, -ce:pi:, -ceptus [[ad, _to_, + capio:, _take_]],
    _receive, accept_
a:cer, a:cris, a:cre, adj. _sharp_; figuratively, _keen, active, eager_
    (Sec. 471)
acerbus, -a, -um, adj. _bitter, sour_
acie:s, -e:i:, f. [[a:cer, _sharp_]], _edge; line of battle_
a:criter, adv. [[a:cer, _sharp_]], compared a:crius, a:cerrime:,
    _sharply, fiercely_
ad, prep. with acc. _to, towards, near_.
  With the gerund or gerundive, _to, for_
ad-aequo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _make equal, make level with_
ad-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus, _lead to; move, induce_
ad-eo:, -i:re, -ii:, -itus, _go to, approach, draw near, visit_, with
    acc. (Sec. 413)
ad-fero:, ad-ferre, at-tuli:, ad-la:tus, _bring, convey; report,
    announce; render, give_ (Sec. 426)
ad-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[ad, _to_, + facio:, _do_]],
    _affect, visit_
adfli:cta:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of adfli:cto:, _shatter_]],
    _shattered_
ad-fli:go:, -ere, -fli:xi:, -fli:ctus, _dash upon, strike upon; harass,
    distress_
ad-hibeo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[ad, _to_, + habeo:, _hold_]], _apply,
    employ, use_
ad-hu:c, adv. _hitherto, as yet, thus far_
aditus, -u:s, m. [[adeo:, _approach_]], _approach, access; entrance_.
    Cf. adventus
ad-ligo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _bind to, fasten_
ad-loquor, -loqui:, -locu:tus sum, dep. verb [[ad, _to_, + loquor,
    _speak_]], _speak to, address_, with acc.
ad-ministro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _manage, direct_
admi:ra:tio:, -o:nis, f. [[admi:ror, _wonder at_]], _admiration,
    astonishment_
ad-moveo:, -e:re, -mo:vi:, -mo:tus, _move to; apply, employ_
ad-propinquo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _come near, approach_, with dat.
ad-sum, -esse, -fui:, -futu:res, _be present; assist_; with dat., Sec.
    426
adule:sce:ns, -entis, m. and f. [[part. of adole:sco:, _grow_]], _a
    youth, young man, young person_
adventus, -u:s, m. [[ad, _to_, + venio:, _come_]], _approach,
    arrival_ (Sec. 466)
adversus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of adverto:, _turn to_]], _turned
    towards, facing; contrary, adverse_.
  re:s adversae, _adversity_
aedificium, aedifi'ci:, n. [[aedifico:, _build_]], _building, edifice_
aedifico:, -a:re, -a:vi, -a:tus [[aede:s, _house_, + facio:, _make_]],
    _build_
aeger, aegra, aegrum, adj. _sick, feeble_
aequa:lis, -e, adj. _equal, like_. As a noun, aequa:lis, -is, m. or f.
    _one of the same age_
aequus, -a, -um, adj. _even, level; equal_
Aeso:pus, -i:, m. _Aesop_, a writer of fables
aesta:s, -a:tis, f. _summer_,
  inita: aesta:te, _at the beginning of summer_
aeta:s, -a:tis, f. _age_
Aethiopia, -ae, f. _Ethiopia_, a country in Africa
A:frica, -ae, f. _Africa_
A:frica:nus, -a, -um, adj. _of Africa_. A name given to Scipio for his
    victories in Africa
ager, agri:, m. _field, farm, land_ (Sec. 462.c)
agger, -eris, m. _mound_
agmen, -inis, n. [[ago:, _drive_]], _an army_ on the march, _column_.
    pri:mum agmen, _the van_
ago:, -ere, e:gi:, a:ctus, _drive, lead; do, perform_.
  vi:tam agere, _pass life_
agricola, -ae, m. [[ager, _field_, + colo:, _cultivate_]], _farmer_
agri: cultu:ra, -ae, f. _agriculture_
a:la, -ae, f. _wing_
alacer, -cris, -cre, adj. _active, eager_. Cf. a:cer
alacrita:s, -a:tis, f. [[alacer, _active_]], _eagerness, alacrity_
alacriter, adv. [[alacer, _active_]], comp alacrius, alacerrime:,
    _actively, eagerly_
albus, -a, -um, adj., _white_
alce:s, -is, f. _elk_
Alcme:na, -ae, f. _Alcme'na_, the mother of Hercules
aliquis (-qui:), -qua, -quid (-quod), indef. pron. _some one, some_
    (Sec. 487)
alius, -a, -ud (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), adj. _another, other_.
  alius ... alius, _one ... another_.
  alii: ... alii:, _some ... others_ (Sec. 110)
Alpe:s, -ium, f. plur. _the Alps_
alter, -era, -erum (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), adj. _the one, the other_
    (of two).
  alter ... alter, _the one ... the other_ (Sec. 110)
altitu:do:, -inis, f. [[altus, _high_]], _height_
altus, -a, -um, adj. _high, tall, deep_
Ama:zone:s, -um, f. plur. _Amazons_, a fabled tribe of warlike women
ambo:, -ae, -o:, adj. (decl. like duo), _both_
ami:ce:, adv. [[ami:cus, _friendly_]], superl. ami:cissime:, _in a
    friendly manner_
amicio:, -i:re, ----, -ictus [[am-, _about_, + iacio:, _throw_]],
    _throw around, wrap about, clothe_
ami:citia, -ae, f. [[ami:cus, _friend_]], _friendship_
ami:cus, -a, -um, adj. [[amo:, _love_]], _friendly_. As a noun,
    ami:cus, -i:, m. _friend_
a:-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus, _send away; lose_
amo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _love, like, be fond of_ (Sec. 488)
amphithea:trum, -i:, n. _amphitheater_
amplus, -a, -um, adj. _large, ample; honorable, noble_
an, conj. _or_, introducing the second part of a double question
ancilla, -ae, f. _maidservant_
ancora, -ae, f. _anchor_
Andromeda, -ae, f. _Androm'eda_, daughter of Cepheus and wife of
    Perseus
angulus, -i:, m. _angle, corner_
anim-adverto:, -ere, -ti:, -sus [[animus, _mind_, + adverto:, _turn
    to_]], _turn the mind to, notice_
animal, -a:lis, n. [[anima, _breath_]], _animal_ (Sec. 465.b)
animo:sus, -a, -um, adj. _spirited_
animus, -i:, m. [[anima, _breath_]], _mind, heart; spirit, courage,
    feeling;_ in this sense often plural
annus, -i, m. _year_
ante, prep, with acc. _before_
antea:, adv. [[ante]], _before, formerly_
anti:quus, -a, -um, adj. [[ante, _before_]], _former, ancient, old_
aper, apri:, m. _wild boar_
Apollo:, -inis, m. _Apollo_, son of Jupiter and Latona, brother of
    Diana
ap-pa:reo:, -e:re, -ui:, ---- [[ad + pa:reo:, _appear_]], _appear_
ap-pello:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _call by name, name_. Cf. no:mino:,
    voco:
Appius, -a, -um, adj. _Appian_
ap-plico:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _apply, direct, turn_
apud, prep, with acc. _among; at, at the house of_
aqua, -ae, f. _water_
aquila, -ae, f. _eagle_
a:ra, -ae, f. _altar_
arbitror, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, _think, suppose_ (Sec. 420.c). Cf.
    exi:stimo:, puto:
arbor, -oris, f. _tree_ (Sec. 247.1.a)
Arcadia, -ae, f. _Arcadia_, a district in southern Greece
a:rdeo:, -e:re, a:rsi:, a:rsu:rus, _be on fire, blaze, burn_
arduus, -a, -um, adj. _steep_
Ari:cia, -ae, f. _Aricia_, a town on the Appian Way, near Rome
arie:s, -etis, m. _battering-ram_ (p. 221)
arma, -o:rum, n. plur. _arms, weapons_. Cf. te:lum
arma:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[armo:, _arm_]], _armed, equipped_
aro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _plow, till_
ars, artis, f. _art, skill_
articulus, -i:, m. _joint_
ascri:bo:, -ere, -scri:psi:, -scri:ptus [[ad, _in addition_, + scri:bo:,
    _write_]], _enroll, enlist_
A:sia, -ae, f. _Asia_, i.e. Asia Minor
at, conj. _but_. Cf. autem, sed
Athe:nae, -a:rum, f. plur. _Athens_
Atla:s, -antis, m. _Atlas_, a Titan who was said to hold up the sky
at-que, ac, conj. _and, and also, and what is more_. atque may be
    used before either vowels or consonants, ac before consonants only
attentus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of attendo:, _direct_ (the mind)
    _toward_]], _attentive, intent on, careful_
at-tonitus, -a, -um, adj. _thunderstruck, astounded_
auda:cia, -ae, f. [[auda:x, _bold_]], _boldness, audacity_
auda:cter, adv. [[auda:x, _bold_]], compared auda:cius, auda:cissime:,
    _boldly_
auda:x, -a:cis, adj. _bold, daring_
audeo:, -e:re, ausus sum, _dare_
audio:, -i:re, -i:vi: or -i:i:, -i:tus, _hear, listen to_ (Secs. 420.d,
    491)
Auge:a:s, -ae, m. _Auge'as_, a king whose stables Hercules cleaned
aura, -ae, f. _air, breeze_
aura:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[aurum, _gold_]], _adorned with gold_
aureus, -a, -um, adj.[[aurum, _gold_]], _golden_
aurum, -i:, n. _gold_
aut, conj. _or_.
  aut ... aut, _either ... or_
autem, conj., usually second, never first, in the clause, _but,
    moreover, however, now_. Cf. at, sed
auxilium, auxi'li:, n. _help, aid, assistance;_ plur. _auxiliaries_
a:-verto:, -ere, -ti:, -sus, _turn away, turn aside_
avis, -is, f. _bird_ (Sec. 243.1)


B

ballista, -ae, f. _ballista_, an engine for hurling missiles (p. 220)
balteus, -i:, m. _belt, sword belt_
barbarus, -i:, m. _barbarian, savage_
bellum, -i:, n. _war_.
  bellum i:nferre, with dat. _make war upon_
bene, adv. [[for bone:, from bonus]], compared melius, optime:,
    _well_
benigne:, adv. [[benignus, _kind_]], compared benignius,
    benignissime:, _kindly_
benignus, -a, -um, adj. _good-natured, kind_, often used with dat.
bi:ni:, -ae, -a, distributive numeral adj. _two each, two at a time_
    (Sec. 334)
bis, adv. _twice_
bonus, -a, -um, adj. compared melior, optimus, _good, kind_
    (Sec. 469.a)
bo:s, bovis (gen. plur. boum or bovum, dat. and abl. plur. bo:bus
    or bu:bus), m. and f. _ox, cow_
bracchium, bracchi:, n. _arm_
brevis, -e, adj. _short_
Brundisium, -i:, n. _Brundisium_, a seaport in southern Italy. See map
bulla, -ae, f. _bulla_, a locket made of small concave plates of gold
    fastened by a spring (p. 212)


C

C. abbreviation for Ga:ius, Eng. _Caius_
cado:, -ere, ce'cidi:, ca:su:rus, _fall_
caede:s, -is, f. [[caedo:, _cut_]], (_a cutting down_), _slaughter,
    carnage_ (Sec. 465.a)
caelum, -i:, n. _sky, heavens_
Caesar, -aris, m. _Caesar_, the famous general, statesman, and writer
calamita:s, -a:tis, f. _loss, calamity, defeat, disaster_
calcar, -a:ris, n. _spur_ (Sec. 465.b)
Campa:nia, -ae, f. _Campania_., a district of central Italy. See map
Campa:nus, -a, -um, adj. _of Campania_
campus, -i:, m. _plain, field_, esp. the _Campus Martius_, along the
    Tiber just outside the walls of Rome
canis, -is, m. and f. _dog_
cano:, -ere, ce'cini:, ----, _sing_
canto:, -a:re, -a:vi, -a:tus [[cano:, _sing_]], _sing_
Cape:nus, -a, -um, adj. _of Capena_, esp. the _Porta Cape'na_, the gate
    at Rome leading to the Appian Way
capio:, -ere, ce:pi:, captus, _take, seize, capture_ (Sec. 492)
Capito:li:nus, -a, -um, adj. _belonging to the Capitol, Capitoline_
Capito:lium, Capito:'li:, n. [[caput, _head_]], _the Capitol_, the hill
    at Rome on which stood the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and the
    citadel
capsa, -ae, f. _box_ for books
capti:vus, -i:, m. [[capio:, _take_]], _captive_
Capua, -ae, f. _Capua_, a large city of Campania. See map
caput, -itis, n. _head_ (Sec. 464.2.b)
carcer, -eris, m. _prison, jail_
carrus, -i:, m. _cart, wagon_
ca:rus, -a, -um, adj. _dear; precious_
casa, -ae, f. _hut, cottage_
castellum, -i:, n. [[dim. of castrum, _fort_]], _redoubt, fort_
castrum, -i:, n. _fort_. Usually in the plural, castra, -o:rum,
    a military _camp_.
  castra po:nere, _to pitch camp_
ca:sus, -us, m. [[cado:, _fall_]], _chance; misfortune, loss_
catapulta, -ae, f. _catapult_, an engine for hurling stones
cate:na, -ae, f. _chain_
caupo:na, -ae, f. _inn_
causa, -ae, f. _cause, reason_, qua: de: causa:, _for this reason_
ce:do:, -ere, cessi:, cessu:rus, _give way, retire_
celer, -eris, -ere, adj. _swift, fleet_
celerita:s, -a:tis, f. [[celer, _swift_]], _swiftness, speed_
celeriter, adv. [[celer, _swift_]], compared celerius, celerrime:,
    _swiftly_
ce:na, -ae, f. _dinner_
centum, indecl. numeral adj. _hundred_
centurio:, -o:nis, m. _centurion, captain_
Ce:pheus (dissyl.), -ei: (acc. Ce:phea), m. _Cepheus_, a king of
    Ethiopia and father of Andromeda
Cerberus, -i:, m. _Cerberus_, the fabled three-headed dog that guarded
    the entrance to Hades
certa:men, -inis, n. [[certo:, _struggle_]], _struggle, contest,
    rivalry_
certe:, adv. [[certus, _sure_]], compared certius, certissime:,
    _surely, certainly_
certus, -a, -um, adj. _fixed, certain, sure_.
  aliquem certio:rem facere (_to make some one more certain_),
    _to inform some one_
cervus, -i:, m. _stag, deer_
cesso:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _delay, cease_
ciba:ria, -o:rum, n. plur. _food, provisions_
cibus, -i:, m. _food, victuals_
Cimbri:, -o:rum, m. plur. _the Cimbri_
Cimbricus, -a, -um, adj. _Cimbrian_
ci:nctus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of cingo:, _surround_]], _girt,
    surrounded_
cingo:, -ere, ci:nxi:, ci:nctus, _gird, surround_
circiter, adv. _about_
circum, prep, with acc. _around_
circum'-do:, -dare, -dedi:, -datus, _place around, surround, inclose_
circum'-eo:, -i:re, -ii:, -itus, _go around_
circum-sisto:, -ere, circum'steti:, ----, _stand around, surround_
circum-venio:, -i:re, -ve:ni:, -ventus (_come around_), _surround_
citerior, -ius, adj. in comp., superl. citimus, _hither, nearer_
    (Sec. 475)
ci:vi:lis, -e, adj. [[ci:vis]], _civil_
ci:vis, -is, m. and f. _citizen_ (Sec. 243.1)
ci:vita:s, -a:tis, f. [[ci:vis, _citizen_]], (_body of citizens_),
    _state; citizenship_
cla:mor, -o:ris, m. _shout, cry_
cla:rus, -a, -um, adj. _clear; famous, renowned; bright, shining_
classis, -is, f. _fleet_
claudo:, -ere, -si:, -sus, _shut, close_
clavus, -i:, m. _stripe_
clie:ns, -entis, m. _dependent, retainer, client_ (Sec. 465.a)
Cocles, -itis, m. (_blind in one eye_), _Cocles_, the surname of
    Horatius
co-gno:sco:, -ere, -gno:vi:, -gni:tus, _learn, know, understand_. Cf.
    scio: (Sec. 420.b)
co:go:, -ere, coe:gi:, coa:ctus [[co(m)-, _together_, + ago:, _drive_]],
    (_drive together_), _collect; compel, drive_
cohors, cohortis, f. _cohort_, the tenth part of a legion, about 360
    men
collis, -is, m. _hill_, in summo: colle, _on top of the hill_
    (Sec. 247.2.a)
collum, -i:, n. _neck_
colo:, -ere, colui:, cultus, _cultivate, till; honor, worship; devote
    one's self to_
columna, -ae, f. _column, pillar_
com- (col-, con-, cor-, co-), a prefix, _together, with_, or
    intensifying the meaning of the root word
coma, -ae, f. _hair_
comes, -itis, m. and f. [[com-, _together_, + eo:, _go_]],
    _companion, comrade_
comita:tus, -u:s, m. [[comitor, _accompany_]], _escort, company_
comitor, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb [[comes, _companion_]],
    _accompany_
com-mea:tus, -u:s, m. _supplies_
com-minus, adv. [[com-, _together_, + manus, _hand_]], _hand to
    hand_
com-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus, _join together; commit, intrust_.
  proelium committere, _join battle_.
  se: committere with dat, _trust one's self to_
commode:, adv. [[commodus, _fit_]], compared commodius,
    commodissime:, _conveniently, fitly_
commodus, -a, -um, adj. _suitable, fit_
com-mo:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of commoveo:, _move_]], _aroused,
    moved_
com-paro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, intensive, + paro:,
    _prepare_]], _prepare; provide, get_
com-pleo:, -e:re, -ple:vi:, -ple:tus [[com-, intensive, + pleo:,
    _fill_]], _fill up_
complexus, -u:s, m. _embrace_
com-primo:, -ere, -pressi:, -pressus [[com-, _together_, + premo:,
    _press_]], _press together, grasp, seize_
con-cido:, -ere, -cidi:, ---- [[com-, intensive, + cado:, _fall_]],
    _fall down_
concilium, conci'li:, n. _meeting, council_
con-clu:do:, -ere, -clu:si:, -clu:sus [[com-, intensive, + claudo:,
    _close_]], _shut up, close; end, finish_
con-curro:, -ere, -curri:, -cursus [[com-, _together_, + curro:,
    _run_]], _run together; rally, gather_
condicio:, -o:nis, f. [[com-, _together_, + dico:, _talk_]],
    _agreement, condition, terms_
con-do:no:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _pardon_
con-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus, _hire_
co:n-fero:, -ferre, -tuli:, -la:tus, _bring together_.
  se: co:nferre, _betake one's self_
co:n-fertus, -a, -um, adj. _crowded, thick_
co:nfestim, adv. _immediately_
co:n-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[com-, _completely_, + facio:,
    _do_]], _make, complete, accomplish, finish_
co:n-fi:rmo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _make firm, establish, strengthen,
    affirm, assert_
co:n-fluo:, -ere, -flu:xi:, ----, _flow together_
co:n-fugio:, -ere, -fu:gi:, -fugitu:rus, _flee for refuge, flee_
con-icio:, -ere, -ie:ci:, -iectus [[com-, intensive, + iacio:,
    _throw_]], _hurl_
con-iungo:, -ere, -iu:nxi:, -iu:nctus [[com-, _together_, + iungo:,
    _join_]], _join together, unite_
con-iu:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, _together_, + iu:ro:,
    _swear_]], _unite by oath, conspire_
con-loco:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, _together_, + loco:, _place_]],
    _arrange, place, station_
conloquium, conlo'qui:, n. [[com-, _together_, + loquor, _speak_]],
    _conversation, conference_
co:nor, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb, _endeavor, attempt, try_
co:n-scendo:, -ere, -scendi:, -sce:nsus [[com-, intensive, + scando:,
    _climb_]], _climb up, ascend_.
  na:vem co:nscendere, _embark, go on board_
co:n-scri:bo:, -ere, -scri:psi:, -scri:ptus [[com-, _together_, +
    scri:bo:, _write_]], (_write together_), _enroll, enlist_
co:n-secro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, intensive, + sacro:,
    _consecrate_]], _consecrate, devote_
co:n-sequor, -sequi:, -secu:tus sum, dep. verb [[com-, intensive, +
    sequor, _follow_]], _pursue; overtake; win_
co:n-servo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, intensive, + servo:,
    _save_]], _preserve, save_
co:nsilium, co:nsi'li:, n. _plan, purpose, design; wisdom_
co:n-sisto:, -ere, -stiti:, -stitus [[com-, intensive, + sisto:,
    _cause to stand_]], _stand firmly, halt, take one's stand_
co:n-spicio:, -ere, -spe:xi:, -spectus [[com-, intensive, + spicio:,
    _spy_]], _look at attentively, perceive, see_
co:nstantia, -ae, f. _firmness, steadiness, perseverance_
co:n-stituo:, -ere, -ui:, -u:tus [[com-, intensive, + statuo:,
    _set_]], _establish, determine, resolve_
co:n-sto:, -a:re, -stiti:, -sta:tu:rus [[com-, _together_, + sto:,
    _stand_]], _agree; be certain; consist of_
co:nsul, -ulis, m. _consul_ (Sec. 464.2.a)
co:n-su:mo:, -ere, -su:mpsi:, -su:mptus [[com-, intensive, + sumo:,
    _take_]], _consume, use up_
con-tendo:, -ere, -di:, -tus, _strain; hasten; fight, contend,
    struggle_
con-tineo:, -e:re, -ui:, -tentus [[com-, _together_, + teneo:,
    _hold_]], _hold together, hem in, contain; restrain_
contra:, prep, with acc. _against, contrary to_
con-traho:, -ere, -tra:xi:, -tra:ctus [[com-, _together_, + traho:,
    _draw_]], _draw together;_ of sails, _shorten, furl_
contro:versia, -ae, f. _dispute, quarrel_
con-venio:, -i:re, -ve:ni:, -ventus [[com-, _together_, + venio:,
    _come_]], _come together, meet, assemble_
con-verto:, -ere, -verti:, -versus [[com-, intensive, + verto:,
    _turn_]], _turn_
con-voco:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, _together_, + voco:, _call_]],
    _call together_
co-orior, -i:ri:, -ortus sum, dep. verb [[com-, intensive, + orior,
    _rise_]], _rise, break forth_
co:pia, -ae, f. [[com-, intensive, + ops, _wealth_]], _abundance,
    wealth, plenty_. Plur. co:piae, -a:rum, _troops_
coquo:, -ere, coxi:, coctus, _cook_
Corinthus, -i:, f. _Corinth_, the famous city on the Isthmus of Corinth
Corne:lia, -ae, f. _Cornelia_, daughter of Scipio and mother of the
    Gracchi
Corne:lius, Corne:'li:, m. _Cornelius_, a Roman name
cornu:, -u:s, n. _horn; wing_ of an army, a: dextro: cornu:, _on the
    right wing_ (Sec. 466)
coro:na, -ae, f. _garland, wreath; crown_
coro:na:tus, -a, -um, adj. _crowned_
corpus, -oris, n. _body_
cor-ripio:, -ere, -ui:, -reptus [[com-, intensive, + rapio:,
    _seize_]], _seize, grasp_
coti:dia:nus, -a, -um, adj. _daily_
coti:die:, adv. _daily_
cre:ber, -bra, -brum, adj. _thick, crowded, numerous, frequent_
cre:do:, -ere, -di:di:, -ditus, _trust, believe_, with dat.
    (Sec. 501.14)
cremo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _burn_
creo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _make; elect, appoint_
Creo:n, -ontis, m. _Creon_, a king of Corinth
cre:sco:, -ere, cre:vi:, cre:tus, _rise, grow, increase_
Cre:ta, -ae, f. _Crete_, a large island in the Mediterranean
Cre:taeus, -a, -um, adj. _Cretan_
cru:s, cru:ris, n. _leg_
cru:stulum, -i:, n. _pastry, cake_
cubi:le, -is, n. _bed_
cultu:ra, -ae, f. _culture, cultivation_
cum, conj. with the indic. or subjv. _when; since; although_
    (Sec. 501.46)
cum, prep, with abl. _with_ (Sec. 209)
cupide:, adv. [[cupidus, _desirous_]], compared cupidius,
    cupidissime:, _eagerly_
cupidita:s, -a:tis, f. [[cupidus, _desirous_]], _desire, longing_
cupio:, -ere, -i:vi: or -ii:, -i:tus, _desire, wish_. Cf. volo:
cu:r, adv. _why, wherefore_
cu:ra, -ae, f. _care, pains; anxiety_
cu:ria, -ae, f. _senate house_
cu:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[cu:ra, _care_]], _care for, attend to,
    look after_
curro:, -ere, cucurri:, cursus, _run_
currus, -u:s, m. _chariot_
cursus, -u:s, m. _course_
custo:dio:, -i:re, -i:vi:, -i:tus [[custo:s, _guard_]], _guard, watch_


D

Daedalus, -i:, m. _Daed'alus_, the supposed inventor of the first flying
    machine
Da:vus, -i:, m. _Davus_, name of a slave
de:, prep, with abl. _down from, from; concerning, about, for_
    (Sec. 209).
  qua: de: causa:, _for this reason, wherefore_
dea, -ae, f. _goddess_ (Sec. 461.a)
de:beo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[de:, _from_, + habeo:, _hold_]], _owe,
    ought, should_
decem, indecl. numeral adj. _ten_
de:-cerno:, -ere, -cre:vi:, -cre:tus [[de:, _from_, + cerno:,
    _separate_]], _decide, decree_
de:-cido:, -ere, -cidi:, ---- [[de:, _down_, + cado:, _fall_]], _fall
    down_
decimus, -a, -um, numeral adj. _tenth_
de:cli:vis, -e, adj. _sloping downward_
de:-do:, -ere, -didi:, -ditus, _give up, surrender_, se: de:dere,
    _surrender one's self_
de:-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus [[de:, _down_, + du:co:, _lead_]],
    _lead down, escort_
de:-fendo:, -ere, -di:, -fe:nsus, _ward off, repel, defend_
de:-fero:, -ferre, -tuli:, -la:tus [[de:, _down_, + fero:, _bring_]],
    _bring down; report, announce_ (Sec. 426)
de:-fessus, -a, -um, adj. _tired out, weary_
de:-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[de:, _from_, + facio:, _make_]],
    _fail, be wanting; revolt from_
de:-fi:go:, -ere, -fi:xi:, -fi:xus [[de:, _down_, + fi:go:, _fasten_]],
    _fasten, fix_
de:-icio:, -ere, -ie:ci:, -iectus [[de:, _down_, + iacio:, _hurl_]],
    _hurl down; bring down, kill_
de-inde, adv. _(from thence), then, in the next place_
de:lecto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _delight_
de:leo:, -e:re, -e:vi:, -e:tus, _blot out, destroy_
de:li:bero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _weigh, deliberate, ponder_
de:-ligo:, -ere, -le:gi:, -le:ctus [[de:, _from_, + lego:, _gather_]],
    _choose, select_
Delphicus, -a, -um, adj. _Delphic_
de:missus, -a, -um [[part. of de:mitto:, _send down_]], _downcast,
    humble_
de:-mo:nstro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[de:, _out_, + mo:nstro:,
    _point_]], _point out, show_
de:mum, adv. _at last, not till then_.
  tum de:mum, _then at last_
de:nique, adv. _at last, finally_. Cf. postre:mo:
de:ns, dentis, m. _tooth_ (Sec. 247.2.a)
de:nsus, -a, -um, adj. _dense, thick_
de:-pendeo:, -e:re, ----, ---- [[de:, _down_, + pendeo:, _hang_]], _hang
    from, hang down_
de:-plo:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[de:, intensive, + plo:ro:,
    _wail_]], _bewail, deplore_
de:-po:no:, -ere, -posui:, -positus [[de:, _down_, + po:no:, _put_]],
    _put down_
de:-scendo:, -ere, -di:, -sce:nsus [[de:, _down_, + scando:, _climb_]],
    _climb down, descend_
de:-scri:bo:, -ere, -scri:psi:, -scri:ptus [[de:, _down_, + scri:bo:,
    _write_]], _write down_
de:si:dero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _long for_
de:-silio:, -i:re, -ui:, -sultus [[de:, _down_, + salio:, _leap_]],
    _leap down_
de:-spe:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[de:, _away from_, + spe:ro:,
    _hope_]], _despair_
de:-spicio:, -ere, -spe:xi, -spectus [[de:, _down_]], _look down upon,
    despise_
de:-sum, -esse, -fui:, -futu:rus [[de:, _away from_, + sum, _be_]],
    _be wanting, lack_, with dat. (Sec. 426)
deus, -i:, m. _god_ (Sec. 468)
de:-volvo:, -ere, -volvi:, -volu:tus [[de:, _down_, + volvo:, _roll_]],
    _roll down_
de:-voro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[de:, _down_, + voro:, _swallow_]],
    _devour_
dexter, -tra, -trum (-tera, -terum), adj. _to the right, right_.
  a: dextro: cornu:, _on the right wing_
Dia:na, -ae, f. _Diana_, goddess of the moon and twin sister of Apollo
di:co:, -ere, di:xi:, dictus (imv. di:c), _say, speak, tell_. Usually
    introduces indirect discourse (Sec. 420.a)
dicta:tor, -o:ris, m. [[dicto:, _dictate_]], _dictator_, a chief
    magistrate with unlimited power
die:s, -e:i or die:, m., sometimes f. in sing., _day_ (Sec. 467)
dif-fero:, -ferre, distuli:, di:la:tus [[dis-, _apart_, + fero:,
    _carry_]], _carry apart; differ_.
  differre inter se:, _differ from each other_
dif-ficilis, -e, adj. [[dis-, _not_, + facilis, _easy_]], _hard,
    difficult_ (Sec. 307)
difficulta:s, -a:tis, f. [[difficilis, _hard_]], _difficulty_
di:ligenter, adv. [[di:lige:ns, _careful_]], compared di:ligentius,
    di:ligentissime:, _industriously, diligently_
di:ligentia, -ae, f. [[di:lige:ns, _careful_]], _industry, diligence_
di:-mico:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _fight, struggle_
di:-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus [[di:-, _off_, + mitto:, _send_]],
    _send away, dismiss, disband_.
  di:mittere animum in, _direct one's mind to, apply one's self to_
Diome:de:s, -is, m. _Di:-o-me:'de:s_, a name
dis-, di:-, a prefix expressing separation, _off, apart, in different
    directions_. Often negatives the meaning
dis-ce:do:, -ere, -cessi:, -cessus [[dis-, _apart_, + ce:do:, _go_]],
    _depart from, leave, withdraw, go away_
dis-cerno:, -ere, -cre:vi:, -cre:tus [[dis-, _apart_, + cerno:,
    _sift_]], _separate; distinguish_
discipli:na, -ae, f. _instruction, training, discipline_
discipulus, -i:, m. [[disco:, _learn_]], _pupil, disciple_
disco:, -ere, didici:, ----, _learn_
dis-cutio:, -ere, -cussi:, -cussus [[dis-, _apart_, + quatio:,
    _shake_]], _shatter, dash to pieces_
dis-po:no:, -ere, -posui:, -positus [[dis-, _apart_, + po:no:, _put_]],
    _put here and there, arrange, station_
dis-similis, -e, adj. [[dis-, _apart_, + similis, _like_]],
    _unlike, dissimilar_ (Sec. 307)
dis-tribuo:, -ere, -ui:, -u:tus, _divide, distribute_
diu:, adv., compared diu:tius, diu:tissime:, _for a long time, long_
    (Sec. 477)
do:, dare, dedi:, datus, _give_.
  in fugam dare, _put to flight_.
  alicui nego:tium dare, _employ some one_
doceo:, -e:re, -ui:, -tus, _teach, show_
doctri:na, -ae, f. [[doctor, _teacher_]], _teaching, learning,
    wisdom_
dolor, -o:ris, m. _pain, sorrow_
domesticus, -a, -um, adj. [[domus, _house_]], _of the house,
    domestic_
domicilium, domici'li:, n. _dwelling; house, abode_. Cf. domus
domina, -ae, f. _mistress_ (of the house), _lady_ (Sec. 461)
dominus, -i:, m. _master_ (of the house), _owner, ruler_ (Sec. 462)
domus, -u:s, f. _house, home_.
  domi:, locative, _at home_ (Sec. 468)
dormio:, -i:re, -i:vi:, -i:tus, _sleep_
draco:, -o:nis, m. _serpent, dragon_
dubito:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _hesitate_
dubius, -a, -um, adj. [[duo, _two_]], (_moving two ways_),
    _doubtful, dubious_
du-centi:, -ae, -a, numeral adj. _two hundred_
du:co:, -ere, du:xi:, ductus (imv. du:c), _lead, conduct_
dum, conj. _while, as long as_
duo, duae, duo, numeral adj. _two_ (Sec. 479)
duo-decim, indecl. numeral adj. _twelve_
du:rus, -a, -um, adj. _hard, tough; harsh, pitiless, bitter_
dux, ducis, m. and f. [[cf. du:co:, _lead_]], _leader, commander_


E

e: or ex, prep, with abl. _out of, from, off, of_ (Sec. 209)
eburneus, -a, -um, adj. _of ivory_
ecce, adv. _see! behold! there! here!_
e:-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus [[e:, _out_, + du:co:, _lead_]], _lead
    out, draw out_
ef-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[ex, _thoroughly_, + facio:,
    _do_]], _work out; make, cause_
ef-fugio:, -ere, -fu:gi:, -fugitu:rus [[ex, _from_, + fugio:, _flee_]],
    _escape_
egeo:, -e:re, -ui:, ----, _be in need of, lack_, with abl. (Sec. 501.32)
ego, pers. pron. _I_; plur. no:s, _we_ (Sec. 480)
e:-gredior, -i:, e:gressus sum, dep. verb [[e:, _out of_, + gradior,
    _go_]], _go out, go forth_.
  e: na:vi: e:gredi:, _disembark_
e:-icio:, -ere, -ie:ci:, -iectus [[e:, _forth_, + iacio:, _hurl_]],
    _hurl forth, expel_
elementum, -i:, n., in plur. _first principles, rudiments_
elephantus, -i:, m. _elephant_
E:lis, Elidis, f. _E'lis_, a district of southern Greece
emo:, -ere, e:mi:, e:mptus, _buy, purchase_
enim, conj., never standing first, _for, in fact, indeed._ Cf. nam
Ennius, Enni:, m. _Ennius_, the father of Roman poetry, born 239 B.C.
eo:, i:re, ii: (i:vi:), itu:rus, _go_ (Sec. 499)
eo:, adv. _to that place, thither_
E:pi:rus, -i:, f. _Epi'rus_, a district in the north of Greece
eques, -itis, m. [[equus, _horse_]], _horseman, cavalryman_
equita:tus, -u:s, m. [[equito:, _ride_]], _cavalry_
equus, -i:, m. _horse_
e:-rigo:, -ere, -re:xi:, -re:ctus [[e:, _out_, + rego:, _make
    straight_]], _raise up_
e:-ripio:, -ere, -ui:, -reptus [[e:, _out of_, + rapio:, _seize_]],
    _seize, rescue_
e:-rumpo:, -ere, -ru:pi:, -ruptus [[e:, _forth_, + rumpo:, _break_]],
    _burst forth_
e:ruptio:, -o:nis, f. _sally_
Erymanthius, -a, -um, adj. _Erymanthian, of Erymanthus_, a district in
    southern Greece
et, conj. _and, also_. et ... et, _both ... and_. Cf. atque, ac,
    -que
etiam, adv. (rarely conj.) [[et, _also_, + iam, _now_]], _yet,
    still; also, besides_. Cf. quoque.
  no:n so:lum ... sed etiam, _not only ... but also_
Etru:sci:, -o:rum, m. _the Etruscans_, the people of Etruria. See map of
    Italy
Euro:pa, -ae, f. _Europe_
Eurystheus, -i:, m. _Eurys'theus_, a king of Tiryns, a city in southern
    Greece
e:-va:do:, -ere, -va:si:, -va:sus [[e:, _out_, + va:do:, _go_]], _go
    forth, escape_
ex, see e:
exanima:tus, -a, -um [[part. of exanimo:, _put out of breath_
    (anima)]], adj. _out of breath, tired; lifeless_
ex-cipio:, -ere, -ce:pi:, -ceptus [[ex, _out_, + capio:, _take_]],
    _welcome, receive_
exemplum, -i:, n. _example, model_
ex-eo:,-i:re,-ii:,-itu:rus [[ex, _out_, + eo:, _go_]], _go out, go
    forth_ (Sec. 413)
ex-erceo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[ex, _out_, + arceo:, _shut_]], _(shut
    out), employ, train, exercise, use_
exercitus, -us, m. [[exerceo:, _train_]], _army_
ex-i:stimo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ex, _out_, + aestimo:, _reckon_]],
    _estimate; think, judge_ (Sec. 420.c). Cf. arbitror, puto:
ex-orior, -i:ri:, -ortus sum, dep. verb [[ex, _forth_, + orior,
    _rise_]], _come forth, rise_
expedi:tus, -a, -um, adj. _without baggage_
ex-pello:, -ere, -puli:, -pulsus [[ex, _out_, + pello:, _drive_]],
    _drive out_
ex-pio:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ex, intensive, + pi:o, _atone for_]],
    _make amends for, atone for_
explo:ra:tor, -o:ris, m. [[explo:ro:, _investigate_]], _spy, scout_
explo:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _examine, explore_
ex-pugno:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ex, _out_, + pugno:, _fight_]], _take
    by storm, capture_
exsilium, exsi'li:, n. [[exsul, _exile_]], _banishment, exile_
ex-specto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ex, _out_, + specto:, _look_]],
    _expect, wait_
ex-struo:, -ere, -stru:xi:, -stru:ctus [[ex, _out_, + struo:,
    _build_]], _build up, erect_
exterus, -a, -um, adj., compared exterior, extre:mus or extimus,
    _outside, outer_ (Sec. 312)
extra:, prep, with acc. _beyond, outside of_
ex-traho:, -ere, -tra:xi:, -tra:ctus [[ex, _out_, + traho:, _drag_]],
    _drag out, pull forth_
extre:mus, -a, -um, adj., superl. of exterus, _utmost, farthest_
    (Sec. 312)


F

fa:bula, -ae, f. _story, tale, fable_
facile, adv. [[facilis, _easy_]], compared facilius, facillime:,
    _easily_ (Sec. 322)
facilis, -e, adj. [[cf. facio:, _make_]], _easy, without difficulty_
    (Sec. 307)
facio:, -ere, fe:ci:, factus (imv. fac), _make, do; cause, bring
    about_.
  impetum facere in, _make an attack upon_.
  proelium facere, _fight a battle_.
  iter facere, _make a march_ or _journey_.
  aliquem certio:rem facere, _inform some one_.
  facere verba pro:, _speak in behalf of_.
    Passive fi:o:, fieri:, factus sum, _be done, happen_.
      certior fieri:, _be informed_
fallo:, -ere, fefelli:, falsus, _trip, betray, deceive_
fa:ma, -ae, f. _report, rumor; renown, fame, reputation_
fame:s, -is (abl. fame:), f. _hunger_
familia, -ae, f. _servants, slaves; household, family_
fasce:s, -ium (plur. of fascis), f. _fasces_ (p. 225)
fasti:gium, fasti:'gi:, n. _top; slope, descent_
fa:tum, -i:, n. _fate, destiny_
fauce:s, -ium, f. plur. _jaws, throat_
faveo:, -e:re, fa:vi:, fautu:rus, _be favorable to, favor_, with dat.
    (Sec. 501.14)
fe:li:x, -i:cis, adj. _happy, lucky_
fe:mina, -ae, f. woman. Cf. mulier
fera, -ae, f. [[ferus, _wild_]], _wild beast_
fera:x, -a:cis, adj. _fertile_
fere:, adv. _about, nearly, almost_
fero:, ferre, tuli:, la:tus, _bear_.
  graviter or moleste: ferre, _be annoyed_ (Sec. 498)
ferreus, -a, -um, adj. [[ferrum, _iron_]], _made of iron_
fide:lis, -e, adj. [[fide:s, _trust_]], _faithful, true_
fide:s, fidei: _or_ fide:, _trust, faith; promise, word; protection_.
  in fidem veni:re, _come under the protection_.
  in fide: mane:re, _remain loyal_
fi:lia, -ae (dat. and abl. plur. fi:lia:bus), f. _daughter_ (Sec. 461.a)
fi:lius, fi:li: (voc. sing, fi:li:), m. _son_
fi:nis, -is, m. _boundary, limit, end;_ in plur. _territory, country_
    (Sec. 243.1)
fi:nitimus, -a, -um, adj. [[fi:nis, _boundary_]], _adjoining,
    neighboring_.
  Plur. fi:nitimi:, -o:rum, m. _neighbors_
fi:o:, fieri:, factus sum, used as passive of facio:. See facio: (Sec.
    500)
flamma, -ae, f. _fire, flame_
flo:s, flo:ris, m. _flower_
fluctus, -u:s, m. [[of. fluo:, _flow_]], _flood, wave, billow_
flu:men, -inis, n. [[cf. fluo:, _flow_]], _river_ (Sec. 464.2.b)
fluo:, -ere, flu:xi:, fluxus, _flow_
fluvius, fluvi:, m. [[cf. fluo:, _flow_]], _river_
fodio:, -ere, fo:di:, fossus, _dig_
fo:ns, fontis, m. _fountain_ (Sec. 247.2.a)
fo:rma, -ae, f. _form, shape, appearance; beauty_
Formiae, -a:rum, f. _Formiae_, a town of Latium on the Appian Way.
    See map
forte, adv. [[abl. of fors, _chance_]], _by chance_
fortis, -e, adj. _strong; fearless, brave_
fortiter, adv. [[fortis, _strong_]], compared fortius, fortissime:,
    _strongly; bravely_
fortu:na, -ae, f. [[fors, _chance_]], _chance, fate, fortune_
forum, -i:, n. _market place_, esp. the Forum Ro:ma:num, where the life
    of Rome centered
Forum Appi:, _Forum of Appius_, a town in Latium on the Appian Way
fossa, -ae, f. [[cf. fodio:, _dig_]], _ditch_
fragor, -o:ris, m. [[cf. frango:, _break_]], _crash, noise_
frango:, -ere, fre:gi:, fra:ctus, _break_
fra:ter, -tris, m. _brother_
fremitus, -u:s, m. _loud noise_
frequento:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _attend_
fre:tus, -a, -um, adj. _supported, trusting_. Usually with abl. of
    means
fro:ns, frontis, f. _front_, a: fronte, _in front_
fru:ctus, -u:s, m. _fruit_
fru:menta:rius, -a, -um, adj. _pertaining to grain_.
  re:s fru:menta:ria, _grain supplies_
fru:mentum, -i:, n. _grain_
fru:stra:, adv. _in vain, vainly_
fuga, -ae, f. [[cf. fugio:, _flee_]], _flight_.
  in fugam dare, _put to flight_
fugio:, -ere, fu:gi:, fugitu:rus, _flee, run; avoid, shun_
fu:mo:, -are, ------, ------, _smoke_
fu:nis, -is, m. _rope_
furor, -o:ris, m. [[furo:, _rage_]], _madness_.
  in furo:rem inci:dere, _go mad_


G

Ga:ius, Ga:i:, m. _Gaius_, a Roman name, abbreviated C., English form
    _Caius_
Galba, -ae, m. _Galba_, a Roman name
galea, -ae, f. _helmet_
Gallia, -ae, f. _Gaul_, the country comprising what is now Holland,
    Belgium, Switzerland, and France
Gallicus, -a, -um, adj. _Gallic_
galli:na, -ae, f. _hen, chicken_
Gallus, -i:, m. _a Gaul_
gaudium, gaudi:, n. _joy_
Gena:va, -ae, f. _Geneva_, a city in Switzerland
ge:ns, gentis, f. [[cf. gigno:, _beget_]], _race, family; people,
    nation, tribe_
genus, -eris, n. _kind, variety_
Germa:nia, -ae, f. _Germany_
Germa:nus, -i:, m. _a German_
gero:, -ere, gessi:, gestus, _carry, wear; wage_.
  bellum gerere, _wage war_.
  re:s gestae, _exploits_.
  bene gerere, _carry on successfully_
gladia:to:rius, -a, -um, adj. _gladiatorial_
gladius, gladi:, m. _sword_
glo:ria, -ae, f. _glory, fame_
Gracchus, -i:, m. _Gracchus_, name of a famous Roman family
gracilis, -e, adj. _slender_ (Sec. 307)
Graeca, -o:rum, n. plur. _Greek writings, Greek literature_
Graece:, adv. _in Greek_
Graecia, -ae, f. _Greece_
grammaticus, -i:, m. _grammarian_
gra:tia, -ae, f. _thanks, gratitude_
gra:tus, -a, -um, adj. _acceptable, pleasing_. Often with dat.
    (Sec. 501.16)
gravis, -e:, adj. _heavy; disagreeable; serious, dangerous; earnest,
    weighty_
graviter, adv. [[gravis, _heavy_]], compared gravius, gravissime:,
    _heavily; greatly, seriously_.
  graviter ferre, _bear ill, take to heart_
guberna:tor, -o:ris, m. [[guberno:, _pilot_]], _pilot_


H

habe:na, -ae, f. _halter, rein_.
habeo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus, _have, hold; regard, consider, deem_
habito:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[cf. habeo:, _have_]], _dwell, abide,
    inhabit_. Cf. incolo:, vi:vo:
ha:c-tenus, adv. _thus far_
Helve:tii:, -o:rum, m. _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe
Hercule:s, -is, m. _Hercules_, son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and god of
    strength
Hesperide:s, -um, f. _the Hesperides_, daughters of Hesperus, who kept
    the garden of the golden apples
hic, haec, hoc, demonstrative adj. and pron. _this_ (of mine); as
    pers. pron. _he, she, it_ (Sec. 481)
hi:c, adv. _here_
hiems, -emis, f. _winter_
hi:nc, adv. [[hi:c, _here_]], _from here, hence_
Hippolyte:, -e:s, f. _Hippolyte_, queen of the Amazons
ho-die:, adv. [[modified form of ho:c die:, _on this day_]], _to-day_
homo:, -inis, m. and f. _(human being), man, person_
honestus, -a, -um, adv. [[honor, _honor_]], _respected, honorable_
honor, -o:ris, m. _honor_
ho:ra, -ae, f. _hour_
Hora:tius, Hora:'ti:, m. _Horatius_, a Roman name
horribilis, -e, adj. _terrible, horrible_
hortor, -a:ri, -a:tus sum, dep. verb, _urge, incite, exhort, encourage_
    (Sec. 493)
hortus, -i:, m. _garden_
hospitium, hospi'ti:, n. [[hospes, _host_]], _hospitality_
hostis, -is, m. and f. _enemy, foe_ (Sec. 465.a)
humilis, -e, adj. _low, humble_ (Sec. 307)
Hydra, -ae, f. _the Hydra_, a mythical water snake slain by
    Hercules


I

iacio:, -ere, ie:ci:, iactus, _throw, hurl_
iam, adv. _now, already_.
  nec iam, _and no longer_
Ia:niculum, -i:, n. _the Janiculum_, one of the hills of Rome
ia:nua, -ae, f. _door_
ibi, adv. _there, in that place_
I:carus, -i:, m. _Ic'arus_, the son of Daedalus
ictus, -u:s, m. [[cf. i:co:, _strike_]], _blow_
i:dem, e'adem, idem, demonstrative pron. [[is + dem]], _same_
    (Sec. 481)
ido:neus, -a, -um, adj. _suitable, fit_
igitur, conj., seldom the first word, _therefore, then_. Cf. itaque
ignis, -is, m. _fire_ (Secs. 243.1; 247. 2.a; 465, 1)
igno:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, _not_, + (g)notus, _known_]],
    _unknown, strange_
ille, illa, illud, demonstrative adj. and pron. _that_ (yonder); as
    pers. pron. _he, she, it_ (Sec. 481)
illi:c, adv. [[cf. ille]], _yonder, there_
im-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus [[in, _against_, + mitto:, _send_]],
    _send against; let in_
immolo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[in, _upon_, + mola, _meal_]],
    _sprinkle with sacrificial meal; offer, sacrifice_
im-morta:lis, -e, adj. [[in-, _not_, + mortalis, _mortal_]],
    _immortal_
im-morta:lita:s, -a:tis, f. [[immorta:lis, _immortal_]], _immortality_
im-para:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, _not_, + para:tus, _prepared_]],
    _unprepared_
impedi:mentum, -i:, n. [[impedio:, _hinder_]], _hindrance;_ in plur.
    _baggage_
impedi:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of impedio:, _hinder_]], _hindered,
    burdened_
im-pello:, -ere, -puli:, -pulsus [[in, _against_, + pello:,
    _strike_]], _strike against; impel, drive, propel_
impera:tor, -o:ris, m. [[impero:, _command_]], _general_
imperium, impe'ri:, n. [[impero:, _command_]], _command, order; realm,
    empire; power, authority_
impero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _command, order_. Usually with dat. and
    an object clause of purpose (Sec. 501.41).
  With acc. object, _levy, impose_
impetus, -u:s, m. _attack_, impetum facere in, _make an attack upon_
im-po:no:, -ere, -posui, -positus [[in, _upon_, + po:no:, _place_]],
    _place upon; impose, assign_
in, prep, with acc. _into, to, against, at, upon, towards;_ with abl.
    _in, on_.
  in reliquum tempus, _for the future_
in-, inseparable prefix. With nouns and adjectives often with a
    negative force, like English _un-, in-_
in-cautus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, _not_, + cautus, _careful_]], _off
    one's guard_
incendium, incendi:, n. _flame, fire_. Cf. ignis, flamma
in-cendo:, -ere, -di:, -ce:nsus, _set fire to, burn_
in-cido:, -ere, -cidi:, ----, [[in, _in, on_, + cado:, _fall_]],
    _fall in, fall on; happen_.
  in furo:rem incidere, _go mad_
in-cipio:, -ere, -ce:pi, -ceptus [[in, _on_, + capio:, _take_]],
    _begin_
in-cognitus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, _not_, + cognitus, _known_]],
    _unknown_
in-colo:, -ere, -ui:, ----, [[in, _in_, + colo:, _dwell_]], _inhabit;
    live_
incolumis, -e, adj. _sound, safe, uninjured, imharmed_
in-cre:dibilis, -e, adj. [[in-, _not_, + cre:dibilis, _to be
    believed_]], _incredible_
inde, _from that place, thence_
induo:, -ere, -ui:, -u:tus, _put on_
indu:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of induo:, _put on_]], _clothed_
in-eo:, -i:re, -ii:, -itus [[in, _into_, + eo:, _go_]], _go into;
    enter upon, begin_, with acc. (Sec. 413)
i:n-fa:ns, -fantis, adj. [[in-, _not_, + *fa:ns, _speaking_]], _not
    speaking_. As a noun, m. and f. _infant_
i:n-fe:li:x, -i:cis, adj. [[in-, _not_, + fe:li:x, _happy_]], _unhappy,
    unlucky_
i:nfe:nsus, -a, -um, adj. _hostile_
i:n'-fero:, i:nfer're, in'tuli:, inla:'tus [[in, _against_, + fero:,
    _bear_]], _bring against or upon, inflict_, with acc. and dat.
    (Sec. 501.15).
  bellum i:nferre, with dat., _make war upon_
i:nferus, -a, -um, adj. _low, below_ (Sec. 312).
i:n-fi:ni:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, _not_, + fi:ni:tus, _bounded_]],
    _boundless, endless_
i:n-fi:rmus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, _not_, + fi:rmus, _strong_]],
    _weak, infirm_
ingenium, inge'ni, n. _talent, ability_
inge:ns, -entis, adj. _vast, huge, enormous, large_. Cf. magnus
in-gredior, -gredi:, -gressus sum [[in, _in_, + gradior, _walk_]],
    _advance, enter_
inimi:cus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, _not_, + ami:cus, _friendly_]],
    _hostile_.
  As a noun, inimi:cus, -i:, m. _enemy, foe_. Cf. hostis
initium, ini'ti:, _entrance, beginning_
initus, -a, -um, part. of ineo:.
  inita: aesta:te, _at the beginning of summer_
iniu:ria, -ae, f. [[in, _against_, + iu:s, _law_]], _injustice,
    wrong, injury_.
  alicui iniu:ria:s i:nferre, _inflict wrongs upon some one_
inopia, -ae, f. [[inops, _needy_]], _want, need, lack_
in-opi:na:ns, -antis, adj. [[in-, _not_, + opi:na:ns, _thinking_]],
    _not expecting, taken by surprise_
inquit, _said he, said she_. Regularly inserted in a direct quotation
in-rigo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _irrigate, water_
in-rumpo:, -ere, -ru:pi:, -ruptus [[in, _into_, + rumpo:, _break_]],
    _burst in, break in_
in-ruo:, -ere, -rui:,---- [[in, _in_, + ruo:, _rush_]], _rush in_
i:n-sequor, -sequi:, -secu:tus sum, dep. verb [[in, _on_, + sequor,
    _follow_]], _follow on, pursue_
i:n-signe, -is, n. _badge, decoration_ (Sec. 465.b)
i:nsignis, -e, adj. _remarkable, noted_
i:nsta:ns, -antis, adj. [[part. of i:nsto, _be at hand_]], _present,
    immediate_
i:n-sto:, -a:re, -stiti:, -statu:rus [[in, _upon_, + sto:, _stand_]],
    _stand upon; be at hand; pursue, press on_
i:nstru:mentum, -i:, n. _instrument_
i:n-struo:, -ere, -stru:xi:, -stru:ctus [[in, _on_, + struo:, _build_]],
    _draw up_
i:nsula, -ae, f. _island_
integer, -gra, -grum, _untouched, whole; fresh, new_
intellego:, -ere, -le:xi:, -le:ctus [[inter, _between_, +lego:,
    _choose_]], _perceive, understand_ (Sec. 420.d)
intento:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _aim; threaten_
inter, prep. with acc. _between, among; during, while_ (Sec. 340)
interfectus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of inter-ficio:, _kill_]], _slain,
    dead_
inter-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[inter, _between_, + facio:,
    _make_]], _put out of the way, kill_. Cf. neco:, occi:do:, truci:do:
interim, adv. _meanwhile_
interior, -ius, adj. _interior, inner_ (Sec. 315)
inter-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus, _leave off, suspend_
interpres, -etis, m. and f. _interpreter_
inter-rogo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _question_
inter-sum, -esse, -fui:, -futu:rus [[inter, _between_, +sum, _be_]],
    _be present, take part in_, with dat. (Sec. 501.15)
inter-va:llum, -i:, n. _interval, distance_
intra:, adv. and prep. with acc. _within, in_
intro:, -a:re, -a:vi, -a:tus, _go into, enter_
in-venio:, -i:re, -ve:ni:, -ventus [[in, _upon_, +venio:, _come_]],
    _find_
invi:sus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of invideo:, _envy_]], _hated,
    detested_
Iola:us, -i:, m. _I-o-la:'us_, a friend of Hercules
ipse, -a, -um, intensive pron. _that very, this very; self, himself,
    herself, itself_, (Sec. 481)
i:ra, -ae, f. _wrath, anger_
i:ra:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of i:ra:scor, _be angry_]], _angered,
    enraged_
is, ea, id, demonstrative adj. and pron. _this, that; he, she, it_
    (Sec. 481)
iste, -a, -ud, demonstrative adj. and pron. _that_ (of yours), _he,
    she, it_ (Sec. 481)
ita, adv. _so, thus_. Cf. si:c and tam
Italia, -ae, f. _Italy_
ita-que, conj. _and so, therefore_
item, adv. _also_
iter, itineris, n. _journey, march, route; way, passage_
    (Secs. 247.1.a; 468).
  iter dare, _give a right of way, allow to pass_.
  iter facere, _march_ (see p. 159)
iubeo:, -e:re, iussi:, iussus, _order, command_. Usually with the infin.
    and subj. acc. (Sec. 213)
iu:dex, -icis, m. and f. _judge_ (Sec. 464.1)
iu:dico:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[iu:dex, _judge_]], _judge, decide_
    (Sec. 420.c)
Iu:lia, -ae, _Julia_, a Roman name
Iu:lius, Iu:li:, m. _Julius_, a Roman name
iungo:, -e:re, iu:nxi:, iu:nctus, _join; yoke, harness_
Iu:no:, -o:nis, f. _Juno_, the queen of the gods and wife of Jupiter
Iuppiter, Iovis, m. _Jupiter_, the supreme god
iu:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _swear, take an oath_
iussus, -a, -um, part. of iubeo:, _ordered_


L

L., abbreviation for Lu:cius
labefactus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of labefacio:, _cause to shake_]],
    _shaken, weakened, ready to fall_
Labie:nus, -i:, m. _La-bi-e'nus_, one of Caesar's lieutenants
labor, -o:ris, m. _labor, toil_
labo:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[labor, _labor_]], _labor; suffer, be
    hard pressed_
lacrima, -ae, f. _tear_
lacus, -u:s (dat. and abl. plur. lacubus), m. _lake_
laete:, adv. [[laetus, _glad_]], compared laetius, laetissime:,
    _gladly_
laetitia, -ae, f. [[laetus, _glad_]], _joy_
laetus, -a, -um, adj. _glad, joyful_
lapis, -idis, m. _stone_ (Secs. 247.2.a; 464.1)
La:r, Laris, m.; plur. Lare:s, -um (rarely -ium), _the Lares_ or
    _household, gods_
la:te:, adv. [[la:tus, _wide_]], compared la:tius, la:tissime:, _widely_
Latine:, adv. _in Latin_.
  Lati:ne: loqui:, _to speak Latin_
la:titu:do:, -inis, f. [[la:tus, _wide_]], _width_
La:to:na, -ae, f. _Latona_, mother of Apollo and Diana
latus, -a, -um, adj. _wide_
la:tus, -eris, n. _side, flank_.
  ab utro:que latere, _on each side_
laudo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[laus, _praise_]], _praise_
laurea, -ae, f. _laurel_
laurea:tus, -a, -um, adj. _crowned with laurel_
laus, laudis, f. _praise_
lectulus, -i:, m. _couch, bed_
le:ga:tus, -i:, m. _ambassador; lieutenant_
legio:, -o:nis, f. [[cf. lego:, _gather_]], (_body of soldiers_),
    _legion_, about 3600 men (Sec. 464.2.a)
legio:na:rius, -a, -um, adj. _legionary_. Plur. legio:narii:, -o:rum, m.
    _the soldiers of the legion_
lego:, -ere, le:gi:, le:ctus, _read_
le:nis, -e, adj. _gentle, smooth, mild_
le:niter, adv. [[le:nis, _gentle_]], compared le:nius, le:nissime:,
    _gently_
Lentulus, -i, m. _Lentulus_, a Roman family name
leo:, -o:nis, m. _lion_
Lernaeus, -a, -um, adj. _Lernaeean_, of Lerna, in southern Greece
Lesbia, -ae, f. _Lesbia_, a girl's name
levis, -e, adj. _light_
le:x, le:gis, f. _measure, law_
libenter, adv. [[libe:ns, _willing_]], compared libentius,
    libentissime:, _willingly, gladly_
li:ber, -era, -erum, adj. _free_ (Sec. 469.b)
li:beri:, -o:rum, m. [[li:ber, _free_]], _children_
li:bero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[li:ber, _free_]], _set free, release,
    liberate_
li:berta:s, -a:tis, f. [[li:ber, _free_]], _freedom, liberty_
li:ctor, -o:ris, m. _lictor_ (p. 225)
li:mus, -i:, m. _mud_
littera, -ae, f. _a letter_ of the alphabet; in plur. _a letter,
    epistle_
li:tus, -oris, n. _seashore, beach_
locus, -i:, m. (plur. loci: and loca, m. and n.), _place, spot_
longe:, adv. [[longus, _long_]], comp. longius, longissime:, _a long
    way off; by far_
longinquus, -a, -um, adj. [[longus, _long_]], _distant, remote_
longitu:do:, -inis, f. [[longus, _long_]], _length_
longus, -a, -um, adj. _long_
loquor, loqui, locu:tus sum, dep. verb, _talk, speak_
lo:ri:ca, -ae, f. [[lo:rum, _thong_]], _coat of mail, corselet_
lu:do:, -ere, lu:si:, lu:sus, _play_
lu:dus, -i:, m. _play; school_, the elementary grades. Cf. schola
lu:na, -ae, f. _moon_
lu:x, lu:cis, f. (no gen. plur.), _light_.
  pri:ma lu:x, _daybreak_
Ly:dia, -ae, f. _Lydia_, a girl's name


M

M., abbreviation for Ma:rcus
magicus, -a, -um, adj. _magic_
magis, adv. in comp. degree [[magnus, _great_]], _more, in a higher
    degree_ (Sec. 323)
magister, -tri:, m. _master, commander; teacher_
magistra:tus, -u:s, m. [[magister, _master_]], _magistracy;
    magistrate_
magnitu:do:, -inis, f. [[magnus, _great_]], _greatness, size_
magnopere, adv. [[abl. of magnum opus]], compared magis, maxime:,
    _greatly, exceedingly_ (Sec. 323)
magnus, -a, -um, adj., compared maior, maximus, _great, large;
    strong, loud_ (Sec. 311)
maior, maius, -o:ris, adj., comp. of magnus, _greater, larger_ (Sec.
    311)
maio:re:s, -um, m. plur. of maior, _ancestors_
ma:lo:, ma:lle, ma:lui:, ---- [[magis, _more_, + volo:, _wish_]], _wish
    more, prefer_ (Sec. 497)
malus, -a, -um, adj., compared peior, pessimus, _bad, evil_ (Sec. 311)
mando:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[manus, _hand_, + do:, _put_]], _(put in
    hand), intrust; order, command_
maneo:, -e:re, ma:nsi:, ma:nsu:rus, _stay, remain, abide_
Ma:nlius, Ma:nli:, m. _Manlius_, a Roman name
ma:nsue:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of ma:nsue:sco:, _tame_]], _tamed_
manus, -u:s, f. _hand; force, band_
Ma:rcus, -i:, m. _Marcus, Mark_, a Roman first name
mare, -is, n. (no gen. plur.), _sea_.
  mare tene:re, _be out to sea_
margo:, -inis, m. _edge, border_
mari:tus, -i:, m. _husband_
Marius, Mari:, m. _Marius_, a Roman name, esp. _C. Marius_, the general
Ma:rtius, -a, -um, adj. _of Mars_, esp. the _Campus Martius_
ma:ter, -tris, f. _mother_
ma:trimo:nium, ma:trimo:'ni:, n. _marriage_.
  in ma:trimo:nium du:cere, _marry_
ma:tu:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _hasten_. Cf. contendo:, propero:
ma:tu:rus, -a, -um, adj. _ripe, mature_
maxime:, adv. in superl. degree [[maximus, _greatest_]], compared
    magnopere, magis, maxime:, _especially, very much_ (Sec. 323)
maximus, -a, -um, adj., superl. of magnus, _greatest, extreme_
    (Sec. 311)
medius, -a, -um, adj. _middle part; middle, intervening_
melior, -ius, -o:ris, adj., comp. of bonus, _better_ (Sec. 311)
melius, adv. in comp. degree, compared bene, melius, optime:,
    _better_ (Sec. 323)
memoria, -ae, f. [[memor, _mindful_]], _memory_.
  memoria: tene:re, _remember_
me:ns, mentis, f. _mind_. Cf. animus
me:nsis, -is, m. _month_ (Sec. 247.2. a)
merca:tor, -o:ris, m. [[mercor, _trade_]], _trader, merchant_
meri:dia:nus, -a, -um, adj. [[meri:die:s, _noon_]], _of midday_
meri:die:s, ---- (acc. -em, abl. -e:), m. [[medius, _mid_, +
    die:s, _day_]], _noon_
metus, -u:s, m. _fear, dread_
meus, -a, -um, possessive adj. and pron. _my, mine_ (Sec. 98)
mi:les, -itis, m. _soldier_ (Sec. 464.1)
mi:lita:ris, -e, adj. [[mi:les, _soldier_]], _military_.
  re:s mi:lita:ris, _science of war_
mi:lito:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[mi:les, _soldier_]], _serve as a
    soldier_
mi:lle, plur. mi:lia, -ium, numeral adj. and subst. _thousand_ (Sec.
    479)
minime:, adv. in superl. degree, compared parum, minus, minime:,
    _least, very little; by no means_ (Sec. 323)
minimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared parvus, minor,
    minimus, _least, smallest_ (Sec. 311)
minor, minus, -o:ris, adj. in comp. degree, compared parvus, minor,
    minimus, _smaller, less_ (Sec. 311)
Mi:no:s, -o:is, m. _Minos_, a king of Crete
minus, adv. in comp. degree, compared parum, minus, minime:, _less_
    (Sec. 323)
Minyae, -a:rum, m. _the Minyae_, a people of Greece
mi:ra:bilis, -e, adj. [[mi:ror, _wonder at_]], _wonderful, marvelous_
mi:ror, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb [[mi:rus, _wonderful_]], _wonder,
    marvel, admire_
mi:rus, -a, -um, adj. _wonderful_
Mi:se:num, -i:, _Mise'num_, a promontory and harbor on the coast of
    Campania. See map
miser, -era, -erum, adj. _wretched, unhappy, miserable_
missus, -a, -um, part. of mitto:, _sent_
mitto:, -ere, mi:si:, missus, _send_
modicus, -a, -um [[modus, _measure_]], _modest, ordinary_
modo, adv. [[abl. of modus, _measure_, with shortened o]], _only,
    merely, just now_.
  modo ... modo, _now ... now, sometimes ... sometimes_
modus, -i:, m. _measure; manner, way; kind_
moenia, -ium, n. plur. [[cf. mu:nio:, _fortify_]], _walls, ramparts_
moleste:, adv. [[molestus, _troublesome_]], compared molestius,
    molestissime:, _annoyingly_.
  moleste: ferre, _to be annoyed_
molestus, -a, -um, _troublesome, annoying, unpleasant_ (Sec. 501.16)
moneo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus, _remind, advise, warn_ (Sec. 489)
mo:ns, montis, m. _mountain_ (Sec. 247.2. a)
mo:nstrum, -i:, n. _monster_
mora, -ae, f. _delay_
moror, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb [[mora, _delay_]], _delay, linger;
    impede_
mors, mortis, f. [[cf. morior, _die_]], _death_
mo:s, mo:ris, m. _custom, habit_
mo:tus, -u:s, m. [[cf. moveo:, _move_]], _motion, movement_.
  terrae mo:tus, _earthquake_
moveo:, -e:re, mo:vi:, mo:tus, _move_
mox, adv. _soon, presently_
mulier, -eris, f. _woman_
multitu:do:, -inis, f. [[multus, _much_]], _multitude_
multum (multo:), adv. [[multus, _much_]], compared plu:s, plu:rimum,
    _much_ (Sec. 477)
multus, -a, -um, adj., compared plu:s, plu:rimus, _much_; plur. _many_
    (Sec. 311)
mu:nio:, -i:re, -i:vi: or -ii:, -i:tus, _fortify, defend_
mu:ni:tio:, -o:nis, f. [[mu:nio:, _fortify_]], _defense, fortification_
mu:rus, -i:, m. _wall_. Cf. moenia
mu:sica, -ae, f. _music_


N

nam, conj. _for_. Cf. enim
nam-que, conj., a strengthened nam, introducing a reason or
    explanation, _for, and in fact; seeing that_
na:rro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _tell, relate_
na:scor, na:sci:, na:tus sum, dep. verb, _be born, spring from_
na:tu:ra, -ae, f. _nature_
na:tus, part. of na:scor
nauta, -ae, m. [[for na:vita, from na:vis, _ship_]], _sailor_
na:va:lis, -e, adj. [[na:vis, _ship_]], _naval_
na:vigium, na:vi'gi:, n. _ship, boat_
na:vigo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[na:vis, _ship_, + ago:, _drive_]],
    _sail, cruise_
na:vis, -is (abl. -i: or -e), f. _ship_ (Sec. 243.1).
    na:vem co:nscendere, _embark, go on board_.
    na:vem solvere, _set sail_.
    na:vis longa, _man-of-war_
ne:, conj. and adv. _in order that not, that_ (with verbs of fearing),
    _lest; not_.
  ne: ... quidem, _not even_
-ne, interrog. adv., enclitic (see Secs. 16, 210). Cf. no:nne and num
nec or neque, conj. [[ne:, _not_, + que, _and_]], _and not, nor_.
  nec ... nec or neque ... neque, _neither ... nor_
necessa:rius, -a, -um, adj. _needful, necessary_
neco:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[cf. nex, _death_]], _kill_. Cf. interficio:,
    occi:do:, truci:do:
nego:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _deny, say not_ (Sec. 420.a)
nego:tium, nego:'ti:, n. [[nec, _not_, + o:tium, _ease_]], _business,
    affair, matter_.
  alicui nego:tium dare, _to employ some one_
Nemaeus, -a, -um, adj. _Neme'an, of Neme'a_, in southern Greece
ne:mo, dat. ne:mini: (gen. nu:lli:us, abl. nu:llo:, supplied from
    nu:llus), m. and f. [[ne:, _not_, + homo:, _man_]], _(not a man),
    no one, nobody_
Neptu:nus, -i:, m. _Neptune_, god of the sea, brother of Jupiter
neque, see nec
neuter, -tra, -trum (gen. -tri:us, dat. -tri:), adj. _neither_ (of
    two) (Sec. 108)
ne:-ve, conj. adv. _and not, and that not, and lest_
nihil, n. indecl. [[ne:, _not_, + hi:lum, _a whit_]], _nothing_.
  nihil posse, _to have no power_
nihilum, -i:, n., see nihil
Niobe:, -e:s, f. _Ni'obe_, the queen of Thebes whose children were
    destroyed by Apollo and Diana
nisi, conj. [[ne:, _not_, + si:, _if_]], _if not, unless, except_
no:bilis, -e, adj. _well known; noble_
noceo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itu:rus [[cf. neco:, _kill_]], _hurt, injure_,
    with dat. (Sec. 501.14)
noctu:, abl. used as adv. [[cf. nox, _night_]], _at night, by night_
No:la, -ae, f. _Nola_, a town in central Campania. See map
no:lo:, no:lle, no:lui:, ---- [[ne, _not_, + volo:, _wish_]], _not to
    wish, be unwilling_ (Sec. 497)
no:men, -inis, n. [[cf. no:sco:, _know_]], _(means of knowing), name_
no:mino:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[no:men, _name_]], _name, call_. Cf.
    appello:, voco:
no:n, adv. [[ne:, _not_, + u:num, _one_]], _not_.
  no:n so:lum ... sed etiam, _not only ... but also_
no:n-dum, adv. _not yet_
no:n-ne, interrog. adv. suggesting an affirmative answer, _not?_
    (Sec. 210). Cf. -ne and num
no:s, pers. pron. _we_ (see ego) (Sec. 480)
noster, -tra, -trum, possessive adj. and pron. _our, ours_. Plur.
    nostri:, -o:rum, m. _our men_ (Sec. 98)
novem, indecl. numeral adj. _nine_
novus, -a, -um, adj. _new_.
  novae re:s, _a revolution_
nox, noctis, f. _night_, multa: nocte, _late at night_
nu:llus, -a, -um (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:) adj. [[ne:, _not_, +
    u:llus, _any_]], _not any, none, no_ (Sec. 108)
num, interrog. adv. suggesting a negative answer (Sec. 210). Cf. -ne and
    no:nne. In indir. questions, _whether_
numerus, -i:, m. _number_
numquam, adv. [[ne:, _not_, + umquam, _ever_]], _never_
nunc, adv. _now_. Cf. iam
nu:ntio:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[nu:ntius, _messenger_]], _report,
    announce_ (Sec. 420.a)
nu:ntius, nu:nti:, m. _messenger_
nu:per, adv. _recently, lately, just now_
nympha, -ae, f. _nymph_


O

ob, prep. with acc. _on account of_. In compounds it often means _in
    front of, against_, or it is intensive.
  quam ob rem, _for this reason_ (Sec. 340)
obses, -idis, m. and f. _hostage_
ob-sideo:,-e:re,-se:di:, -sessus [[ob, _against_, + sedeo:, _sit_]],
    _besiege_
obtineo:, -e:re, -ui:, -tentus [[ob, _against_, + teneo:, _hold_]],
    _possess, occupy, hold_
occa:sio:, -o:nis, f. _favorable opportunity, favorable moment_
occa:sus, -u:s, m. _going down, setting_
occi:do:, -ere, -ci:di:, -ci:sus [[ob, _down_, + caedo:, _strike_]],
    _strike down; cut down, kill_. Cf. interficio:, neco:
occupo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ob, _completely_, + capio:, _take_]],
    _seize, take possession of, occupy_. Cf. rapio
oc-curro:, -ere, -curri:, -cursus [[ob, _against_ + curro:, _run_]],
    _run towards; meet_, with dat. (Sec. 426)
o:ceanus, -i:, m. _the ocean_
octo:, indecl. numeral adj. _eight_
oculus, -i:, m. _eye_
officium, offi'ci:, n. _duty_
o:lim, adv. _formerly, once upon a time_
o:men, -inis, n. _sign, token, omen_
o:-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus [[ob, _over, past_, + mitto:,
    _send_]], _let go, omit_.
  consilium omittere, _give up a plan_
omni:no:, adv. [[omnis, _all_]], _altogether, wholly, entirely_
omnis, -e, adj. _all, every._ Cf. to:tus
onera:ria, -ae, f. [[onus, _load_]], with na:vis expressed or
    understood, _merchant vessel, transport_
onus, -eris, n. _load, burden_
opi:nio:, -o:nis, f. [[opi:nor, _suppose_]], _opinion, supposition,
    expectation_
oppida:nus, -i:, m. [[oppidum, _town_]], _townsman_
oppidum, -i:, n. _town, stronghold_
opportu:nus, -a, -um, adj. _suitable, opportune, favorable_
op-primo:, -ere, -pressi:, -pressus [[ob, _against_, + premo:,
    _press_]], (_press against_), _crush; surprise_
oppugna:tio:, -o:nis, f. _storming, assault_
oppugno:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ob, _against_, + pugno: _fight_]],
    _fight against, assault, storm, assail_
optime:, adv. in superl. degree, compared bene, melius, optime:, _very
    well, best of all_ (Sec. 323)
optimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared bonus, melior,
    optimus, _best, most excellent_ (Sec. 311)
opus, -eris, n. _work, labor, task_ (Sec. 464.2.b)
o:ra:culum, -i:, n. [[o:ro:, _speak_]], _oracle_
o:ra:tor, -o:ris, m. [[o:ro:, _speak_]], _orator_
orbis, -is, m. _ring, circle_.
  orbis terra:rum, _the earth, world_
orbita, -ae, f. [[orbis, _wheel_]], _rut_
Orcus, -i:, m. _Orcus, the lower world_
o:rdo:, -inis, m. _row, order, rank_ (Sec. 247.2.a)
ori:go, -inis, f. [[orior, _rise_]], _source, origin_
orior, -i:ri:, ortus sum, dep. verb, _arise, rise, begin; spring, be
    born_
o:rna:mentum, -i:, n. [[o:rno:, _fit out_]], _ornament, jewel_
o:rna:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of o:rno:, _fit out_]] _fitted out;
    adorned_
o:rno:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _fit out, adorn_


P

P., abbreviation for Pu:blius
paene, adv. _nearly, almost_
palu:da:mentum, -i:, n. _military cloak_
palu:s, -u:dis, f. _swamp, marsh_
pa:nis, -is, m. _bread_
pa:r, paris, adj. _equal_ (Sec. 471. III)
para:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of paro:, _prepare_]], _prepared,
    ready_
parco:, -ere, peper'ci: (parsi:), parsu:rus, _spare_, with dat.
    (Sec. 501.14)
pa:reo:, -e:re, -ui:, ----, _obey_, with dat. (Sec. 501.14)
paro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _prepare for, prepare; provide, procure_
pars, partis, f. _part, share; side, direction_
parum, adv., compared minus, minime:, _too little, not enough_ (Sec.
    323)
parvus, -a, -um, adj., compared minor, minimus, _small, little_
    (Sec. 311)
passus, -u:s, m. _step, pace_.
  mi:lle passuum, _thousand paces, mile_ (Sec. 331.b)
pateo:, -e:re, patui:, ----, _lie open, be open; stretch, extend_
pater, -tris, m. _father_ (Sec. 464.2.a)
patior, -i:, passus sum, dep. verb, _bear, suffer, allow, permit_
patria, -ae, f. [[cf. pater, _father_]], _fatherland_, (_one's_)
    _country_
paucus, -a, -um, adj. (generally plur.), _few, only a few_
paulisper, adv. _for a little while_
paulo:, adv. _by a little, little_
paulum adv. _a little, somewhat_
pa:x, pa:cis, f. (no gen. plur.), _peace_
pecu:nia, -ae, f. [[pecus, _cattle_]], _money_
pedes, -itis, m. [[pe:s, _foot_]], _foot soldier_
pedester, -tris, -tre, adj. [[pe:s, _foot_]], _on foot; by land_
peior, peius, -o:ris, adj. in comp. degree, compared malus, peior,
    pessimus, _worse_ (Sec. 311)
pellis, -is, f. _skin, hide_
penna, -ae, f. _feather_
per, prep. with acc. _through, by means of, on account of_. In
    composition it often has the force of _thoroughly, completely, very_
    (Sec. 340)
percussus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of percutio:, _strike through_]],
    _pierced_
per-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus [[per, _through_, + du:co:, _lead_]],
    _lead through_.
  fossam perdu:cere, _to construct a ditch_
per-exiguus, -a, -um, adj. [[per, _very_, + exiguus, _small_]],
    _very small, very short_
perfidus, -a, -um, adj. _faithless, treacherous, false_
per-fringo:, -ere, -fre:gi:, -fra:ctus [[per, _through_, frango:,
    _break_]], _shatter_
pergo:, -ere, perre:xi:, perre:ctus [[per, _through_, + rego:,
    _conduct_]], _go on, proceed, hasten_
peri:culum, -i:, n. _trial, test; danger_
peristy:lum, -i:, n. _peristyle_, an open court with columns around it
peri:tus, -a, -um, adj. _skillful_
perpetuus, -a, -um, adj. _perpetual_
Perseus, -ei:, _Perseus_, a Greek hero, son of Jupiter and Danae
perso:na, -ae, f. _part, character, person_
per-sua:deo:, -e:re, -sua:si:, -sua:sus [[per, _thoroughly_, + sua:deo:,
    _persuade_]], _persuade, advise_, with dat. (Sec. 501.14), often
    with an object clause of purpose (Sec. 501.41)
per-terreo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[per, _thoroughly_, + terreo:,
    _frighten_]], _thoroughly terrify, alarm_
per-venio:, -i:re, -ve:ni:, -ventus [[per, _through_, + venio:,
    _come_]], _arrive, reach, come to_
pe:s, pedis, m. _foot_.
  pedem referre, _retreat_ (Sec. 247.2.a)
pessimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared malus, peior,
    pessimus, _worst_ (Sec. 311)
peto:, -ere, -i:vi: or -ii:, -i:tus, _strive for, seek, beg, ask; make
    for, travel to_. Cf. postulo:, quaero:, rogo:
Pharsa:lus, -i:, f. _Pharsa'lus_ or _Pharsa'lia_, a town in Thessaly,
    near which Cassar defeated Pompey, 48 B.C.
philosophia, -ae, f. _philosophy_
philosophus, -i:, m. _philosopher_
pictus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of pingo:, _paint_]], _colored,
    variegated_
pi:lum, -i:, n. _spear, javelin_ (Sec. 462.b)
pisci:na, -ae, f. [[piscis, _fish_]], _fish pond_
piscis, -is, m. _fish_
pi:stor, -o:ris, m. _baker_
placeo:. -e:re, -ui:, -itus, _please, be pleasing_, with dat. (Sec.
    501.14)
pla:nitie:s, -e:i:, f. [[pla:nus, _level_]], _plain_
pla:nus, -a, -um, adj. _level, flat_
ple:nus, -a, -um, _full_
plu:rimum, adv. in superl. degree, compared multum, plu:s, plu:rimum,
    _very much_.
  plu:rimum vale:re, _be most influential_ (Sec. 322)
plu:rimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared multus, plu:s,
    plu:rimus, _most, very many_ (Sec. 311)
plu:s, plu:ris, adj. in comp. degree, compared multus, plu:s, plu:rimus;
    sing. n. as substantive, _more_; plur. _more, several_ (Sec. 311)
pluteus, -i:, m. _shield, parapet_
poena, -ae, f. _punishment, penalty_
poe:ta, -ae, m. _poet_
pompa, -ae, f. _procession_
Pompe:ii:, -o:rum, m. _Pompeii_, a city of Campania. See map
Pompe:ius, Pompe:'i:, m. _Pompey_, a Roman name
po:mum, -i:, n. _apple_
po:no:, -ere, posui:, positus, _put, place_.
  castra po:nere, _pitch camp_
po:ns, pontis, m. _bridge_ (Sec. 247.2.a)
popi:na, -ae, f. _restaurant_
populus, -i:, m. _people_
Porsena, -ae, m. _Porsena_, king of Etruria, a district of Italy.
    See map
porta, -ae, f. _gate, door_
porto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _bear, carry_
portus, -u:s, m. [[cf. porta, _gate_]], _harbor_
possideo:, -e:re, -se:di:, -sessus, _have, own, possess_
possum, posse, potui:, ----, irreg. verb [[potis, _able_, + sum,
    _I am_]], _be able, can_ (Sec. 495).
  nihil posse, _have no power_
post, prep, with acc. _after, behind_ (Sec. 340)
postea:, adv. [[post, _after_, + ea:, _this_]], _afterwards_
(posterus), -a, -um, adj., compared posterior, postre:mus or
    postumus, _following, next_ (Sec. 312)
postquam, conj. _after, as soon as_
postre:mo:, adv. [[abl. of postre:mus, _last_]], _at last, finally_.
    Cf. de:mum, de:nique (Sec. 322)
postri:die:, adv. [[postero:, _next_, + die:, _day_]], _on the next
    day_
postulo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _ask, demand, require_. Cf. peto:,
    quaero:, rogo:
potentia, -ae, f. [[pote:ns, _able_]], _might, power, force_
prae-beo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[prae, _forth_, + habeo:, _hold_]],
    _offer, give_
praeda, -ae, f. _booty, spoil, plunder_
prae-di:co:, -ere, -di:xi:, -dictus [[prae, _before_, + di:co:,
    _tell_]], _foretell, predict_
prae-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[prae, _before_, + facio:,
    _make_]], _place in command_, with acc. and dat. (Sec. 501.15)
prae-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus [[prae, _forward_, + mitto:,
    _send_]], _send forward_
praemium, praemi:, n. _reward, prize_
praeruptus, -a, -um [[part. of prae-rumpo:, _break off_]], _broken
    off, steep_
praese:ns, -entis, adj. _present, immediate_
praesertim, adv. _especially, chiefly_
praesidium, praesi'di, n. _guard, garrison, protection_
prae-sto:, -a:re, -stiti:, -stitus [[prae, _before_, + sto,
    _stand_]], (_stand before_), _excel, surpass_, with dat. (Sec.
    501.15); _show, exhibit_
prae-sum, -esse, -fui:, -futu:rus [[prae, _before_, + sum, _be_]],
    _be over, be in command of_, with dat. (Sec. 501.15)
praeter, prep, with acc. _beyond, contrary to_ (Sec. 340)
praeterea:, adv. [[praeter, _besides_, + ea:, _this_]], _in
    addition, besides, moreover_
praetextus, -a, -um, adj. _bordered, edged_
praeto:rium, praeto:'ri:, n. _praetorium_
prandium, prandi:, n. _luncheon_
premo:, -ere, pressi:, pressus, _press hard, compress; crowd, drive,
    harass_
(prex, precis), f. _prayer_
pri:mo:, adv. [[pri:mus, _first_]], _at first, in the beginning_ (Sec.
    322)
pri:mum, adv. [[pri:mus, _first_]], _first_.
  quam primum, _as soon as possible_
pri:mus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared prior, pri:mus,
    _first_ (Sec. 315)
pri:nceps, -cipis, m. [[pri:mus, _first_, + capio:, _take_]],
    (_taking the first place_), _chief, leader_ (Sec. 464.1)
prior, prius, -o:ris, adj. in comp. degree, superl., pri:mus, _former_
    (Sec. 315)
pri:stinus, -a, -um, adj. _former, previous_
pro:, prep, with abl. _before; for, for the sake of, in behalf of;
    instead of, as_ (Sec. 209). In composition, _forth, forward_
pro:-ce:do:, -ere, -cussi:, -cessu:rus [[pro:, _forward_, + ce:do:,
    _go_]], _go forward, proceed_
procul, adv. _far, afar off_
pro:-curro:, -ere, -curri: (-cucurri:), -cur-sus [[pro:, _forward_, +
    curro:, _run_]], _run forward_
proelium, proeli, n. _battle, combat_.
  proelium committere, _join battle_.
  proelium facere, _fight a battle_
profectio:, -o:nis, f. _departure_
profici:scor, -i:, -fectus sum, dep. verb, _set out, march_. Cf.
    e:gredior, exeo:
pro:-gredior, -i:, -gressus sum, dep. verb [[pro:, _forth_, +
    gradior, _go_]], _go forth, proceed, advance_. Cf. pergo:,
    pro:ce:do:
pro:gressus, see pro:gredior
prohibeo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[pro:, _forth, away from_, + habeo:,
    _hold_]], _keep away from, hinder, prevent_
pro:-moveo:, -e:re, -mo:vi:, -mo:tus [[pro:, _forward_, + moveo:,
    _move_]], _move forward, advance_
pro:-nu:ntio:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[pro:, _forth_, + nu:ntio:,
    _announce_]], _proclaim, declare_
prope, adv., compared propius, proxi-me:, _nearly_. Prep, with acc.
    _near_
pro:-pello:, -ere, -puli:, -pulsus [[pro:, _forth_, + pello:,
    _drive_]], _drive forth; move, impel_
propero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[properus, _quick]], go quickly,
    hasten_. Cf. contendo:, maturo:
propinquus, -a, -um, adj. [[prope, _near]], near, neighboring_
propior, -ius, -o:ris, adj. in comp. degree, superl., proximus,
    _nearer_ (Sec. 315)
propius, adv. in comp. degree, compared prope, propius, proxime:,
    _nearer_ (Sec. 323)
propter, prep. with acc. _on account of, because of_ (Sec. 340)
pro:-scri:bo:, -ere, -scri:psi:, -scriptus [[pro:, _forth_, + scribo:,
    _write_]], _proclaim, publish_. Cf. pro:nu:ntio:
pro:-sequor, -sequi:, -secu:tus sum, dep. verb [[pro:, _forth_, +
    sequor, _follow]], escort, attend_
pro:-sum, pro:desse, pro:fui:, pro:futu:rus [[pro:, _for_, + sum, _be_]],
    _be useful, benefit_, with dat. (Secs. 496; 501.15)
pro:-tego:, -ere, -te:x=i], -te:ctus [[pro:, _in front_, + tego:,
    _cover]], cover in front, protect_
pro:vincia, -ae, f. _territory, province_
proxime:, adv. in superl. degree, compared prope, propius, proxime:,
    _nearest, next; last, most recently_ (Sec. 323)
proximus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared propior,
    proximus, _nearest, next_ (Sec. 315)
pu:blicus, -a, -um, adj. [[populus,_people_]], _of the people,
    public_, res pu:blica, _the commonwealth_
puella, -ae, f. [[diminutive of puer, _boy_]], _girl, maiden_
puer, -eri, m. _boy; slave_ (Sec. 462.c)
pugna, -ae, f _-fight, battle._ Cf. proelium
pugno:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[pugna, _battle]], fight_. Cf. contendo:,
    di:mico:
pulcher, -chra, -chrum, adj. _beautiful, pretty_ (Secs. 469.b; 304)
Pullo:, -o:nis, m. _Pullo_, a centurion
pulso:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _strike, beat_
puppis, -is (acc. -im, abl. -i:), f. _stern_ of a ship, _deck_
pu:re:, adv. [[pu:rus, _pure_]], comp. pu:rius, _purely_
pu:rgo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _cleanse, clean_
purpureus, -a, -um, adj. _purple, dark red_
puto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _reckon, think_ (Sec. 420,_c_). Cf. arbitror,
    exi:stimo:
Py:thia, -ae, f. _Pythia_, the inspired priestess of Apollo at Delphi


Q

qua: de: causa:, _for this reason, wherefore_
qua: re:, _therefore, for this reason_
quaero:, -ere, -si:vi:, -si:tus, _seek, ask, inquire_. Cf. peto:, postulo:,
    rogo:
qua:lis, -e, interrog. pronom. adj. _of what sort, what kind of_.
    talis ... qualis, _such ... as_
quam, adv. _how_; after a comparative, _than_; with a superlative,
    translated _as ... as possible_, quam pri:mum, _as soon as possible_
quantus, -a, -um, adj. [[quam, _how]], how great, how much_,
    tantus ... quantus, _as great as_
qua:rtus, -a, -um, numeral adj. [[quattuor, _four_]], _fourth_
quattuor, indecl. numeral adj. _four_
quattuor-decim, indecl. numeral adj. _fourteen_
-que, conj., enclitic, _and_ (Sec. 16). Cf. ac, atque, et
qui:, quae, quod, rel. pron. and adj. _who, which, what, that_ (Sec.
    482)
quia, conj. _because_. Cf. quod
qui:dam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam), indef. pron. and adj. _a certain
    one, a certain, a_ (Sec. 485).
quidem, adv. _to be sure, certainly, indeed_, ne: ... quidem, _not
    even_
quie:s, -e:tis, f. _rest, repose_
quie:tus, -a, -um, adj. _quiet, restful_
qui:ndecim, indecl. numeral adj. _fifteen_
qui:ngenti:, -ae, -a, numeral adj. _five hundred_
qui:nque, indecl. numeral adj. _five_
qui:ntus, -a, -um, numeral adj. _fifth_
quis (qui:), quae, quid (quod), interrog. pron. and adj. _who? what?
    which?_ (Sec. 483).
quis (qui:), qua (quae), quid (quod), indef. pron. and adj., used after
    si:, nisi, ne:, num, _any one, anything, some one, something, any,
    some_ (Sec. 484).
quisquam, quicquam or quidquam (no fem. or plur.), indef. pron. _any
    one_ (at all), _anything_ (at all) (Sec. 486).
quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque), indef. pron. and adj. _each, each
    one, every_ (Sec. 484).
quo:, interrog. and rel. adv. _whither, where_
quo:, conj. _in order to, that_, with comp. degree (Sec. 350).
quod, conj. _because, in that_. Cf. quia
quoque, conj., following an emphatic word, _also, too_. Cf. etiam
quot-anni:s, adv. [[quot, _how many_ + annus, _year_]], _every
    year, yearly_
quotie:ns, interrog. and rel. adv. _how often? as often as_


R

ra:di:x, -i:cis, f. _root; foot_
rapio:, -ere, -ui:, -tus, _seize, snatch_
ra:ro:, adv. [[ra:rus, _rare_]], _rarely_
ra:rus, -a, -um, adj. _rare_
re- or red-, an inseparable prefix, _again, back, anew, in return_
rebellio:, -o:nis, f. _renewal of war, rebellion_
rece:ns, -entis, adj. _recent_
re-cipio:, -ere, -ce:pi:, -ceptus [[re-, _back_, + capio:, _take_]],
    _take back, receive_.
  se: recipere, _withdraw, retreat_
re-cli:na:tus, -a, -um, part. of recli:no:, _leaning back_
re-crea:tus, -a, -um, part. of recreo:, _refreshed_
re:ctus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of rego:, _keep straight_]], _straight,
    direct_
re-cu:so:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _refuse_
red-a:ctus, -a, -um, part. of redigo:, _reduced, subdued_
red-eo:, -i:re, -ii:, -itus [[red-, _back_, + eo:, _go_]], _go back,
    return_ (Sec. 413). Cf. reverto:
reditus, -u:s, m. [[cf. redeo:, _return_]], _return, going back_
re-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus [[re-, _back_, + du:co:, _lead_]],
    _lead back_
re-fero:, -ferre, rettuli:, -la:tus [[re-, _back_, + fero:, _bear_]],
    _bear back; report_.
  pedem referre, _withdraw, retreat_
re-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[re-, _again_, + facio:, _make_]],
    _make again, repair_.
  se: reficere, _refresh one's self_
re:gi:na, -ae, f. [[re:x, _king_]], _queen_
regio:, -o:nis, f. _region, district_
re:gnum, -i:, n. _sovereignty; kingdom_
rego:, -ere, re:xi:, re:ctus [[cf. re:x, _king_]], _govern, rule_ (Sec.
    490)
re-icio:, -ere, -ie:ci:, -iectus [[re-, _back_, + iacio:, _hurl_]],
    _hurl back; throw away_
re-linquo:, -ere, -li:qui:, -lictus [[re-, _behind_, + linquo:,
    _leave_]], _leave behind, leave, abandon_
reliquus, -a, -um, adj. [[cf. relinquo:, _leave_]], _left over,
    remaining_. As a noun, plur. _the rest_
remo:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of re-moveo:, _remove_]], _remote,
    distant_
re-moveo:, -e:re, -mo:vi:, -motus [[re-, _back_, + moveo:, _move_]],
    _remove_
re:mus, -i:, m. _oar_
re-perio:, -i:re, repperi:, repertus, _find_
re-porto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[re-, _back_, + porto:, _carry_]],
    _carry back, bring back, win, gain_
re:s, rei:, f. _thing, business, matter, deed, event, circumstance_
    (Sec. 467).
  quam ob rem, _for this reason_.
  re:s adversae, _adversity_.
  re:s fru:menta:ria, _grain supplies_.
  re:s gestae, _exploits_.
  re:s milita:ris, _science of war_.
  re:s pu:blica, _the commonwealth_.
  re:s secundae, _prosperity_
re-scindo:, -ere, -scidi:, -scissus [[re-, _back_, + scindo:,
    _cut_]], _cut off, cut down_
re-sisto:, -ere, -stiti:, ---- [[re-, _back_, + sisto:, _cause to
    stand_]], _oppose, resist_, with dat. (Sec. 501.14)
re-spondeo:, -e:re, -spondi:, -spo:nsus [[re-, _in return_, + spondeo:,
    _promise_]], answer, reply (Sec. 420.a)
re-verto:, -ere, -i:, ----, or dep. verb re-vertor, -i:, -sus sum
    [[re-, _back_, + verto:, _turn_]], _turn back, return_. Usually
    active in the perf. system
re-vincio:, -i:re, -vi:nxi:, -vi:nctus [[re-, _back_, + vincio:,
    _bind_]], _fasten_
re:x, re:gis, m. [[cf. rego:, _rule_]], _king_
Rhe:nus, -i:, m. _the Rhine_, a river of Germany
ri:pa, -ae, f. _bank_
rogo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _ask_. Cf. peto:, postulo:, quaero:
Ro:ma, -ae, f. _Rome_. See map
Ro:ma:nus, -a, -um, adj. [[Ro:ma, _Rome_]], _Roman_, follows its noun.
    As a noun, m. and f. _a Roman_
rosa, -ae, f. _rose_
ro:strum, -i:, n. _beak_ of a ship. In plur., _the rostra_, the
    speaker's stand in the Roman Forum
rota, -ae, f. _wheel_
Rubico:, -o:nis, m. _the Rubicon_, a river in northern Italy. See map
ru:mor, -o:ris, m. _report, rumor_
ru:rsus, adv. [[for reversus, _turned back_]], _again, in turn_
ru:s, ru:ris (locative abl. ru:ri:, no gen., dat., or abl. plur.), n.
    _the country_ (Sec. 501.36.1). Cf. ager, patria, terra


S

Sabi:nus, -a, -um, adj. _Sabine_. As a noun, m. and f. _a Sabine_. The
    Sabines were an ancient people of central Italy. See map
sacrum, -i:, n. [[sacer, _consecrated_]], _something consecrated,
    sacrifice;_ usually in plur., _religious rites_
saepe, adv., compared saepius, saepissime:, _often, frequently_
saevus, -a, -um, adj. _cruel, savage_
sagitta, -ae, f. _arrow_
salio:, -i:re, -ui:, saltus, _jump_
salu:s, -u:tis, f. _safety; health_.
  salu:tem di:cere, _send greetings_
salu:to:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[salu:s, _health_]], _greet, salute_
salve:, imv. of salveo:, _hail, greetings_
sanguis, -inis, m. _blood_ (Sec. 247.2.a]
sa:nita:s, -a:tis, f. [[sa:nus, _sound_]], _health, sanity_
sapie:ns, -entis, adj. [[part. of sapio:, _be wise_]], _wise,
    sensible_
satis, adv. and indecl. noun, _enough, sufficient, sufficiently_
saxum, -i:, n. _rock, stone_
scelus, -eris, n. _crime, sin_
sce:ptrum, -i:, n. _scepter_
schola, -ae, f. _school_, the higher grades. Cf. lu:dus
scientia, -ae, f. [[scie:ns, _knowing_]], _skill, knowledge, science_
scindo:, -ere, scidi:, scissus, _cut, tear_
scio:, -i:re, -i:vi:, -i:tus, _know_ (Sec. 420.b). Cf. cogno:sco:
scri:bo:, -ere, scri:psi:, scri:ptus, _write_
scu:tum, -i:, n. _shield, buckler_
se:, see sui:
se:cum = se: + cum
secundus, -a, -um, adj. [[sequor, _follow_]], _following, next,
    second; favorable, successful_.
  re:s secundae, _prosperity_
sed, conj. _but, on the contrary_.
  no:n so:lum ... sed etiam, _not only ... but also_
se:decim, indecl. numeral adj. _sixteen_
sedeo:, -e:re, se:di:, sessus, _sit_
semper, adv. _always, forever_
sena:tus, -u:s, m. [[cf. senex, _old_]], _council of elders, senate_
sentio:, -i:re, se:nsi:, se:nsus, _feel, know, perceive_ (Sec. 420.d).
    Cf. intellego:, video:
septem, indecl. numeral adj. _seven_
septimus, -a, -um, numeral adj. _seventh_
sequor, -i:, secu:tus sum, dep. verb, _follow_ (Sec. 493)
serpe:ns, -entis, f. [[serpo:, _crawl_]], _serpent, snake_
sertae, -a:rum, f. plur. _wreaths, garlands_
servitu:s, -u:tis, f. [[servus, _slave_]], _slavery, servitude_
servo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _save, rescue, keep_
servus, -i:, m. _slave_
se:se:, emphatic for se:
sex, indecl. numeral adj. _six_
Sextus, -i:, m. _Sextus_, a Roman first name
si:, conj. _if_
si:c, adv. _thus, in this way_. Cf. ita, tam
Sicilia, -ae, f. _Sicily_. See map
si:c-ut, _just as, as if_
signifer, -eri:, m. [[signum, _standard_, + fero:, _bear_]],
    _standard bearer_ (p. 224)
signum, -i:, n. _ensign, standard; signal_
silva, -ae, f. _wood, forest_
similis, -e, adj., compared similior, simillimus, _like, similar_
    (Sec. 307)
simul, adv. _at the same time_
simul ac or simul atque, conj. _as soon as_
sine, prep. with abl. _without_ (Sec. 209)
singuli:, -ae, -a, distributive numeral adj. _one at a time, single_
    (Sec. 334)
sinister, -tra, -trum, adj. _left_
Sinuessa, -ae, f. _Sinues'sa_, a town in Campania. See map
sitis, -is (acc. -im, abl. -i:, no plur.), f. _thirst_
situs, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of sino:, _set_]], _situated, placed,
    lying_
socius, soci:, m. _comrade, ally_
so:l, so:lis (no gen. plur.), m. _sun_
soleo:, -e:re, solitus sum, semi-dep. verb, _be wont, be accustomed_
sollicitus, -a, -um, adj. _disturbed, anxious_
so:lum, adv. [[so:lus, _alone_]], _alone, only_.
  no:n so:lum ... sed etiam, _not only ... but also_
so:lus, -a, -um (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), adj. _alone, only_ (Sec. 108)
solvo:, -ere, solvi:, solu:tus, _loosen, unbind_.
  na:vem solvere, _set sail_
somnus, -i:, m. _sleep_
soror, -o:ris, f. _sister_
spatium, spati:, n. _space, distance; time; opportunity_
specta:culum, -i:, n. [[specto:, _look at_]], _show, spectacle_
specto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _look at, witness_
spe:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[spe:s, _hope_]], _hope, expect_ (Sec.
    420.c)
spe:s, spei:, f. _hope_ (Sec. 273.2)
splendide:, adv. [[splendidus]], compared splendidius,
    splendidissime:, _splendidly, handsomely_
splendidus, -a, -um, adj. _brilliant, gorgeous, splendid_
Stabia:nus, -a, -um, _Stabian_
stabulum, -i:, n. [[cf. sto:, _stand_]], _standing place, stable,
    stall_
statim, adv. [[cf. sto:, _stand_]], _on the spot, at once, instantly_
statua, -ae, f. [[sisto:, _place, set_]], _statue_
statuo:, -ere, -ui:, -u:tus [[status, _station_]], _decide, determine_
stilus, -i:, m. _iron pencil, style_ (p. 210)
sto:, -a:re, steti:, status, _stand_
stra:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of sterno:, _spread_]], _paved_ (of
    streets)
strepitus, -u:s, m. [[strepo:, _make a noise_]], _noise, din_
stringo:, -ere, stri:nxi:, strictus, _bind tight; draw, unsheathe_
studeo:, -e:re, -ui:, ----, _give attention to, be eager_, with dat.
    (Sec. 501.14)
studium, studi:, n. [[cf. studeo:, _be eager for_]], _eagerness,
    desire, zeal, devotion_
stultus, -a, -um, adj. _foolish, stupid_
Stympha:lis, -idis, adj. f. _Stymphalian, of Stympha'lus_, a lake in
    southern Greece
Stympha:lus, -i:, m. _Stympha'lus_, a district of southern Greece with a
    town, mountain, and lake, all of the same name
sua:deo:, -e:re, -si:, -sus, _advise, recommend_, with subjv. of purpose
    (Sec. 501.41)
sub, prep, with acc. and abl. _under, below, up to; at_ or _to the
    foot of_
sub-igo:, -ere, -e:gi:, -a:ctus [[sub, _under_, + ago:, _drive_]],
    _subdue, reduce_
subito:, adv. [[subitus, _sudden_]], _suddenly_
sub-sequor, -i:, -secu:tus sum, dep. verb [[sub, _below_, + sequor,
    _follow_]], _follow close after, follow up_
suc-ce:do:, -ere, -cessi:, -cessus [[sub, _below_, + ce:do:, _go_]],
    _follow, succeed_
sui:, reflexive pron. _of himself (herself, itself, themselves)_
    (Sec. 480).
  se:cum = se: + cum.
  se:se:, emphatic form of se:
sum, esse, fui:, futu:rus, irreg. verb, _be; exist_ (Sec. 494)
summus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared superus, superior,
    supre:mus or summus (Sec. 312), _supreme, highest; best, greatest_.
  in summo: colle, _on the top of the hill_
su:mo:, -ere, su:mpsi:, su:mptus, _take up; assume, put on_.
  su:mere supplicium de:, _inflict punishment on_
super, prep. with acc. and abl. _over, above_
superbia, -ae, f. [[superbus, _proud_]], _pride, arrogance_
superbus, -a, -um, adj. _proud, haughty_
superior, comp. of superus
supero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[superus, _above_]], _go over; subdue,
    overcome; surpass, excel_
super-sum, -esse, -fui:, ----, _be over, survive_, with dat. (Sec.
    501.15)
superus, -a, -um, adj., compared superior, supre:mus or summus,
    _above, upper_ (Sec. 312)
supplicium, suppli'ci:, n. [[supplex, _kneeling in entreaty_]],
    _punishment, torture_.
  supplicium su:mere de:, _inflict punishment on_.
  supplicium dare, _suffer punishment_
surgo:, -ere, surre:xi:, ---- [[sub, _from below_, + rego:,
_straighten_]], _rise_
sus-cipio:, -ere, -ce:pi:, -ceptus [[sub, _under_, + capio:, _take_]],
    _undertake, assume, begin_
suspicor, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb, _suspect, surmise, suppose_
sus-tineo:, -e:re, -tinui:, -tentus [[sub, _under_, + teneo:,
    _hold_]], _hold up, bear, sustain, withstand_
suus, -a, -um, reflexive possessive adj. and pron., _his, her, hers,
    its, their, theirs_ (Sec. 98)


T

T., abbreviation of Titus
taberna, -ae, f. _shop, stall_
tabula, -ae, f. _tablet_ for writing
ta:lis, -e, adj. _such_.
  ta:lis ... qua:lis, _such ... as_
tam, adv. _so, such_. Cf. ita, si:c
tamen, adv. _yet, however, nevertheless_
tandem, adv. _at length, finally_
tango:, -ere, tetigi:, ta:ctus, _touch_
tantum, adv. [[tantus]], _only_
tantus, -a, -um, adj. _so great, such_.
  tantus ... quantus, _as large as_
tardus, -a, -um, adj. _slow, late; lazy_
Tarpe:ia, -ae, f. _Tarpeia_ (pronounced _Tar-pe:'ya_), the maiden who
    opened the citadel to the Sabines
Tarquinius, Tarqui'ni:, _Tarquin_, a Roman king. With the surname
    Superbus, _Tarquin the Proud_
Tarraci:na, -ae, f. _Tarraci'na_, a town in Latium. See map
taurus, -i:, m. _bull_
te:ctus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of tego:, _cover_]], _covered,
    protected_
te:lum, -i:, n. _weapon_
temere:, adv. _rashly, heedlessly_
tempesta:s, -a:tis, f. [[tempus, _time_]] _storm, tempest_
templum, -i:, n. _temple, shrine_
tempto, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _try, test; make trial of, attempt_
tempus, -oris, n. _time_ (Sec. 464.2.b).
  in reliquum tempus, _for the future_
teneo:, -e:re, tenui:, ----, _hold, keep_
tergum, -i:, n. _back_, a: tergo:, _on the rear_, tergum vertere,
_retreat, flee_
terni:, -ae, -a, distributive numeral adj. _three each, by threes_
    (Sec. 334)
terra, -ae, f. _earth, ground, land_.
  orbis terra:rum, _the whole world_
terror, -o:ris, m. [[cf. terreo:, _frighten_]], _dread, alarm, terror_
tertius, -a, -um, numeral adj. _third_
Teutone:s, -um, m. _the Teutons_
thea:trum, -i:, n. _theater_
The:bae, -a:rum, f. _Thebes_, a city of Greece
The:ba:ni:, -o:rum, m. _Thebans_, the people of Thebes
thermae, -a:rum, f. plur. _baths_
Thessalia, -ae, f. _Thessaly_, a district of northern Greece
Thra:cia, -ae, f. _Thrace_, a district north of Greece
Tiberius, Tibe'ri:, m. _Tiberius_, a Roman first name
ti:bi:cen, -i:nis, m. [[cf. ti:bia, _pipe_]], _piper, flute player_
timeo:, -e:re, -ui:, ----, _fear, be afraid of_. Cf. vereor
timor, -o:ris, m. [[cf. timeo:, _fear_]], _fear, dread, alarm_.
    Cf. metus
Ti:ryns, Ti:rynthis, f. _Ti'ryns_, an ancient town in southern Greece,
    where Hercules served Eurystheus
toga, -ae, f. [[cf. tego:, _cover_]], _toga_
tormentum, -i:, n. _engine of war_
totie:ns, adv. _so often, so many times_
to:tus, -a, -um, (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), adj. _all, the whole,
    entire_ (Sec. 108)
tra:-do:, -ere, -didi:, -ditus [[tra:ns, _across_, + do:, _deliver_]],
    _give up, hand over, surrender, betray_
tra:-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus [[tra:ns, _across_, + du:co:,
    _lead_]], _lead across_
traho:, -ere, tra:xi:, tra:ctus, _draw, pull, drag_.
  multum trahere, _protract, prolong much_
tra:-icio:, -ere, -ie:ci:, -iectus [[tra:ns, _across_, + iacio:,
    _hurl_]], _throw across; transfix_
tra:-no:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[tra:ns, _across_, + no:, _swim_]],
    _swim across_
tra:ns, prep. with acc. _across, over_ (Sec. 340)
tra:ns-eo:, -i:re, -ii:, -itus [[tra:ns, _across_, + eo:, _go_]], _go
    across, cross_ (Sec. 413)
tra:ns-fi:go:, -ere, -fi:xi:, -fi:xus [[tra:ns, _through_, + fi:go:,
    _drive_]], _transfix_
tra:nsitus, ---- (acc. -um, abl. -u:), m. [[cf. tra:nseo:, _cross
    over_]], _passage across_
tre:s, tria, numeral adj. _three_ (Sec. 479)
tri:duum, tri:dui:, n. [[tre:s, _three_, + die:s, _days_]], _three
    days' time, three days_
tri:ginta:, indecl. numeral adj. _thirty_
triplex, -icis, adj. _threefold, triple_
tri:stis, -e, adj. _sad; severe, terrible_
tri:stitia, -ae, f. [[tri:stis, _sad_]], _sadness, sorrow_
triumpho:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[triumphus, _triumph_]], _celebrate a
    triumph_
triumphus, -i:, m. _triumphal procession, triumph_.
  triumphum agere, _celebrate a triumph_
truci:do:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _cut to pieces, slaughter._ Cf.
    interficio:, neco:, occi:do:
tu:, tui: (plur. vo:s), pers. pron. _thou, you_ (Sec. 480)
tuba, -ae, f. _trumpet_
Tullia, -ae, f. _Tullia_, a Roman name
tum, adv. _then, at that time_
turris, -is, f. _tower_ (Sec. 465.2)
tu:tus, -a, -um, adj. _safe_
tuus, -a, -um, possessive adj. and pron. _your, yours_ (Sec. 98)


U

ubi, rel. and interrog. adv. _where, when_
u:llus, -a, -um (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), adj. _any_ (Sec. 108)
ulterior, -ius, -o:ris, adj. in comp. degree, superl. ultimus,
    _farther, more remote_ (Sec. 315)
ultimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree (see ulterior), _farthest_
    (Sec. 315)
umbra, -ae, f. _shade_
umerus, -i:, m. _shoulder_
umquam, adv. _ever, at any time_
u:na:, adv. [[u:nus, _one_]], _in the same place, at the same time_
u:ndecimus, -a, -um, numeral adj. [[u:nus, _one_, + decimus,
    _tenth_]], _eleventh_
undique, adv. _from every quarter, on all sides, everywhere_
u:nus, -a, -um (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), numeral adj. _one; alone_
    (Sec. 108)
urbs, -is, f. _city_ (Sec. 465.a)
urgeo:, -e:re, ursi:, ----, _press upon, crowd, hem in_
u:rus, -i:, m. _wild ox, urus_
u:sque, adv. _all the way, even_
u:sus, -u:s, m. _use, advantage_
ut, conj. with the subjv. _that, in order that, that not_ (with verbs
    of fearing), _so that, to_ (Sec. 350.1)
uter, -tra, -trum (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), interrog. pron. _which of
    two? which?_ (Sec. 108)
uterque, utraque, utrumque, indef. pron. _each of two, each, both_.
    ab utra:que parte, _on both sides_
u:tilis, -e, adj. [[u:tor, _use_]], _useful_
utrimque, adv. [[uterque, _each of two_]], _on each side, on either
    hand_
u:va, -ae, f. _grape, bunch of grapes_
uxor, -o:ris, f. _wife_


V

va:gi:na, -ae, _sheath, scabbard_
vagor, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb, _wander_
valeo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itu:rus, _be powerful, be well_; in the imperative
    as a greeting, _farewell_.
  plu:rimum vale:re, _have the most power_
vale:tu:do:, -inis, f. [[valeo:, _be well_]], _health_
validus, -a, -um, adj. [[cf. valeo:, _be strong_]], _strong, able,
    well_
valle:s, -is, f. _valley_
va:llum, -i:, n. _rampart, earthworks_
varius, -a, -um, adj. _bright-colored_
va:sto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[va:stus, _empty_]], _(make empty),
    devastate, lay waste_
vecti:gal, -a:lis, n. _tax, tribute_
vehementer, adv. [[veheme:ns, _eager_]], compared vehementius,
    vehementissime:, _eagerly, vehemently_
veho:, -ere, vexi:, vectus, _convey, carry_. In the passive often in the
    sense of _ride, sail_
vel, conj. _or_.
  vel ... vel, _either ... or_. Cf. aut
ve:lo:cita:s, -a:tis, f. [[ve:lo:x, _swift_]], _swiftness_
ve:lo:x, -o:cis, adj. _swift, fleet_
ve:lum, -i:, n. _sail_
ve:ndo:, -ere, ve:ndidi:, ve:nditus, _sell_
venio:, -i:re, ve:ni:, ventus, _come, go_
ventus, -i:, m. _wind_
verbum, -i:, n. _word_.
  verba facere pro:, _speak in behalf of_
vereor, -e:ri:, -itus sum, dep. verb, _fear; reverence, respect_
    (Sec. 493). Cf. timeo:
Vergilius, Vergi'li:, m. _Vergil_, the poet
vergo:, -ere, ----, ----, _turn, lie_
ve:ro:, adv. [[ve:rus, _true_]], _in truth, surely;_ conj. _but,
    however_.
  tum ve:ro:, _then you may be sure_, introducing the climax of a story
verto:, -ere, -ti:, -sus, _turn, change_.
  tergum vertere, _retreat, flee_
ve:rus, -a, -um, _true, actual_
vesper, -eri:, m. _evening_
vester, -tra, -trum, possessive adj. and pron. _your, yours_ (Sec. 98)
vesti:gium, vesti:'gi:, n. [[cf. vesti:go:, _track_]], _footstep, track,
    trace_
vesti:mentum, -i:, n. [[vestis, _clothing_]], _garment_
vestio:, -i:re, -i:vi:, -i:tus [[vestis, _clothing_]], _clothe, dress_
vestis, -is, f. _clothing, attire, garment, robe_
vesti:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of vestio:, _clothe_]], _clothed_
Vesuvius, Vesu'vi, m. _Vesuvius_, the volcano near Pompeii. See map
vetera:nus, -a, -um, adj. _old, veteran_
veto:, -a:re, -ui:, -itus, _forbid, prohibit_
vexo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _trouble, annoy_
via, -ae, f. _way, road, street; way, manner_. Cf. iter
via:tor, -o:ris, m. [[via]], _traveler_
victor, -o:ris, m. [[vinco:, _conquer_]], _conqueror, victor_. In
    apposition, with adj. force _ victorious_
victo:ria, -ae, f. [victor, _victor_], _victory_
vi:cus, -i:, m. _village_
video:, -e:re, vi:di:, vi:sus, _see, perceive_. Pass. _be seen; seem_
    (Sec. 420.d)
vigilia,-ae, f. [[vigil _awake_]], watch.
  de: tertia vigilia, _about the third watch_
vi:ginti:, indecl. numeral adj. _twenty_
vi:licus, -i:, m. [[vi:lla, _farm_]], _steward, overseer of a farm_
vi:lla, -ae, f. _farm, villa_
vincio:, -i:re, vi:nxi:, vi:nctus, _bind, tie,fetter_
vinco:, -ere, vi:ci:, victus, _conquer, defeat, overcome_. Cf. subigo:,
    supero:
vi:nea, -ae, f. _shed_ (p. 219)
vi:num, -i:, n. _wine_
violenter, adv. [[violentus, _violent_]], compared violentius,
    violentissime:, _violently, furiously_
vir, viri:, m. _man, husband; hero_ (Sec. 462.c)
viri:lis, -e, adj. [[vir, _man_]], _manly_
virtu:s, -u:tis, f. [[vir, _man_]], _manliness; courage, valor;
    virtue_ (Sec. 464.1)
vi:s, (vi:s), f. _strength, power, might, violence_ (Sec. 468)
vi:ta, -ae, f. [[cf. vi:vo:, _live_]], _life_, vi:tam agere, _spend or
    pass life_
vi:to, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _shun, avoid_
vi:vo:, -ere, vi:xi:, ----, _live_. Cf. habito:, incolo:
vi:vus, -a, -um, adj. [[cf. vi:vo:, _live_]], _alive, living_
vix, adv. _scarcely, hardly_
voco:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _call, summon, invite_. Cf. appello:,
    no:mino:
volo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tu:rus, _fly_
volo:, velle, volui:, ----, irreg. verb, _will, be willing; wish_
    (Sec. 497). Cf. cupio
volu:men, -inis, n. _roll, book_
Vore:nus, -i:, m. _Vore'nus_, a centurion
vo:s, pers. pron.; _you_ (see tu:) (Sec. 480)
vo:tum, -i:, n. [[neut. part. of voveo:, _vow_]], _vow, pledge, prayer_
vo:x, vo:cis, f. [[cf. voco:, _call_]], _voice, cry; word_
vulnero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[vulnus, _wound_]], _wound, hurt_
vulnus, -eris, n. _wound, injury_
vulpe:s, -i:s, f. _fox_


  [Illustration: EQUES ROMANUS]




ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY

This vocabulary contains only the words used in the English-Latin
exercises. For details not given here, reference may be made to the
Latin-English vocabulary. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, after verbs indicate
the conjugation.


A

a, an, _commonly not translated_
able (be), possum, posse, potui:, ----(Sec. 495)
abode, domicilium, domici'li:, _n._
about (_adv._), circiter
about (_prep._), de:, _with abl._
about to, _expressed by fut. act. part._
abundance, co:pia, -ae, _f._
across, tra:ns, _with acc._
active, a:cer, a:cris, a:cre
advance, pro:gredior, 3
advantage, u:sus, -u:s, _m._
advise, moneo:, 2
after (_conj_.), postquam; _often expressed by the perf. part._
after (_prep._), post, _with acc._
against, in, contra:, _with acc._
aid, auxilium, auxi'li:, _n._
all, omnis, -e; to:tus, -a, -um (Sec. 108)
allow, patior, 3
ally, socius, soci:, _m._
almost, paene; fere:
alone, u:nus, -a, -um; so:lus, -a, -um (Sec. 108)
already, iam
also, quoque
always, semper
ambassador, le:ga:tus, -i:, _m._
among, apud, _with acc._
ancient, anti:quus, -a, -um
and, et; atque (ac); -que
and so, itaque
Andromeda, Andromeda, -ae, _f._
angry, i:ra:tus, -a, um
animal, animal, -a:lis, _n._
announce, nu:ntio:, 1
annoying, molestus, -a, -um
another, alius, -a, -ud (Sec. 109)
any, u:llus, -a, -um (Sec. 108)
any one, anything, quisquam, quicquam _or_ quidquam (Sec. 486)
appearance, fo:rma, -ae, _f._
appoint, creo:, 1
approach, adpropinquo:, 1, _with dat._
are, _used as auxiliary, not translated_; _as a copula_, sum (Sec. 494)
arise, orior, 4
arm, bracchium, bracchi:, _n._
armed, arma:tus, -a, -um
arms, arma, -o:rum, _n. plur._
army, exercitus, -u:s, _m._
around, circum, _with acc._
arrival, adventus, -us, _m._
arrow, sagitta, -ae, _f._
art of war, re:s mi:lita:ris
as possible, _expressed by_ quam _and superl._.
ask, peto:, 3; quaero:, 3; rogo:, 1
assail, oppugno:, 1
at, in, _with acc. or abl.;
  with names of towns, locative case or abl. without a preposition_
    (Sec. 268);
  _time when, abl._
at once, statim
at the beginning of summer, inita: aesta:te
Athens, Athe:nae, -a:rum, _f._
attack, impetus, -us, _m._
attempt, co:nor, 1; tempto:, 1
away from, a: _or_ ab, _with abl._


B

bad, malus, -a, -um
baggage, impedi:menta, -o:rum, _n. plur._
bank, ri:pa, -ae, _f._
barbarians, barbari:, -o:rum, _m. plur._
battle, proelium, proeli:, _n._; pugna, -ae. _f._
be, sum (Sec. 494)
be absent, be far, absum (Sec. 494)
be afraid, timeo:, 2; vereor, 2
be away, absum (Sec. 494)
be in command of, praesum, _with dat._ (Secs. 494, 426)
be informed, certior fi:o:
be off, be distant, absum (Sec. 494)
be without, egeo:, _with abl._ (Sec. 180)
beast (wild), fera, -ae, _f._
beautiful, pulcher, -chra, -chrum
because, quia; quod
because of, propter, _with acc._; _or abl. of cause_
before, heretofore (_adv._), antea:
before (_prep._), ante, _with acc._; pro:, _with abl._
begin, incipio:, 3
believe, cre:do:, 3, _with dat._ (Sec. 153)
belong to, _predicate genitive_ (Sec. 409)
best, optimus, _superl. of_ bonus
betray, tra:do:, 3
better, melior, _comp. of_ bonus
between, inter, _with acc._
billow, fluctus, -us, _m._
bird, avis, -is, _f._ (Sec. 243.1)
blood, sanguis, -inis, _m._
body, corpus, -oris. _n._
bold, auda:x, -a:cis; fortis, -e
boldly, auda:cter; fortiter
boldness, auda:cia, -ae, _f._
booty, praeda, -ae, _f._
both, each (_of two_), uterque, utraque, utrumque
both ... and, et ... et
boy, puer, -eri:, _m._
brave, fortis, -e
bravely, fortiter
bridge, po:ns, pontis, _m._
bright, cla:rus, -a, -um
bring back, reporto:, 1
bring upon, i:nfero:, -ferre, -tuli:, -la:tus, _with acc. and dat._
    (Sec. 426)
brother, fra:ter, -tris, _m._
building, aedificium, aedifi'ci:. _n._
burn, cremo:, 1; incendo:, 3
business, nego:tium, nego:'ti:, _n._
but, however, autem, sed
by, a:, ab, _with abl._;
    _denoting means, abl. alone_;
    _sometimes implied in a participle_
by night, noctu:


C

Caesar, Caesar, -aris, _m._
calamity, calamita:s, -a:tis, _f._
call, voco:, 1; appello:, 1; no:mino:, 1
call together, convoco:, 1
camp, castra, -o:rum, _n. plur._
can, could, possum, posse, potui:, ---- (Sec. 495)
capture, capio:, 3; occupo:, 1
care, cu:ra, -ae, _f._
care for, cu:ro:, 1
careful, attentus, -a, -um
carefulness, di:ligentia, -ae, _f._
carry, fero:, ferre, tuli:, la:tus (Sec. 498); porto:, 1
carry on, gero:, 3
cart, carrus, -i:, _m._
cause, causa, -ae, _f._
cavalry, equita:tus, -u:s, _m._
cease, cesso:, 1
Cepheus, Ce:pheus, -i:, _m._
certain (a), qui:dam, quaedam, quoddam (quiddam) (Sec. 485)
chicken, galli:na, -ae, _f._
chief, pri:nceps, -cipis, _m._
children, li:beri:, -o:rum, _m. plur._
choose, de:ligo:, 3
choose, elect, creo:, 1
citizen, ci:vis, -is, _m. and f._ (Sec. 243.1)
city, urbs, urbis, _f._
clear, cla:rus, -a, -um
cohort, cohors, -rtis, _f._
come, venio:, 4
command, impero:, 1, _with dat._ (Sec. 45);
  iubeo:, 2;
  praesum, _with dat._ (Sec. 426)
commit, committo:, 3
commonwealth, re:s pu:blica, rei: pu:blicae
concerning, de:, _with abl._
conquer, supero:, 1; vinco:, 3
construct (_a ditch_), perdu:co:, 3
consul, co:nsul, -ulis, _m._
contrary to, contra:, _with acc._
Corinth, Corinthus, -i:, _f._
Cornelia, Corne:lia, -ae, _f._
Cornelius, Corne:lius, Corne:'li, _m._
corselet, lo:ri:ca, -ae, _f._
cottage, casa, -ae, _f._
country, _as distinguished from the city_, ru:s, ru:ris, _n.;
  as territory_, fi:ne:s, -ium, _m., plur. of_ fi:nis
courage, virtu:s, -u:tis, _f._
crime, scelus, -eris, _n._
cross, tra:nseo:, 4 (Sec. 499)
crown, coro:na, -ae, _f._


D

daily, coti:die:
danger, peri:culum, -i:, _n._
daughter, fi:lia, -ae, _f._ (Sec. 67)
day, die:s, -e:i:, _m._
daybreak, pri:ma lu:x
dear, ca:rus, -a, -um
death, mors, mortis, _f._
deed, re:s, rei:, _f._
deep, altus, -a, -um
defeat, calamita:s, -a:tis, _f._
defend, de:fendo:, 3
delay (_noun_), mora, -ae, _f._
delay (_verb_), moror, 1
demand, postulo:, 1
dense, de:nsus, -a, -um
depart, disce:do:, 3; exeo:, 4; profici:scor, 3
dependent, clie:ns, -entis, _m._
design, co:nsilium, consi'li: _n._
desire, cupio:, 3
destroy, de:leo:, 2
Diana, Dia:na, -ae, _f._
differ, differo:, differre, distuli:, di:la:tus (Sec. 498)
different, dissimilis, -e
difficult, difficilis, -e
difficulty, difficulta:s, -a:tis, _f._
diligence, di:ligentia, -ae, _f._
dinner, ce:na, -ae, _f._
disaster, calamita:s, -a:tis, _f._
distant (be), absum, -esse, a:fui:, a:futu:rus (Sec. 494)
ditch, fossa, -ae, _f._
do, ago:, 3; facio:, 3;
  _when used as auxiliary, not translated_
down from, de:, _with abl._
drag, traho:, 3
drive, ago:, 3
dwell, habito:, 1; incolo:, 3; vi:vo:, 3
dwelling, aedificium, aedifi'ci:, _n._


E

each, quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque) (Sec. 484)
each of two, uterque, utraque, utrumque
each other, inter _with acc. of a reflexive_
eager, a:cer, a:cris, a:cre; alacer, alacris, alacre
eager (be), studeo:, 2
eagerness, studium, studi:, _n._
eagle, aquila, -ae, _f._
easily, facile
easy, facilis, -e
either ... or, aut ... aut
empire, imperium, impe'ri:, _n._
employ, nego:tium do:
encourage, hortor, 1
enemy, hostis, -is, _m. and f._; inimi:cus, -i:, _m._
enough, satis
entire, to:tus, -a, -um (Sec. 108)
expectation, opi:nio:, -o:nis, _f._
eye, oculus, -i:, _m._


F

faithless, perfidus, -a, -um
famous, cla:rus, -a, -um
far, longe:
farmer, agricola, -ae, _m._
farther, ulterior, -ius
father, pater, patris, _m._
fatherland, patria, -ae, _f._
favor, faveo:, 2
favorable, ido:neus, -a,-um; secundus, -a, -um
fear, metus, -u:s, _m._; timor, -o:ris, _m._
fear, be afraid, timeo:, 2
few, pauci:, -ae, -a
field, ager, agri:, _m._
fifteen, qui:ndecim
fight, contendo:, 3; pugno:, 1
find, reperio:, 4
finish, co:nficio:, 3
fire, ignis, -is, _m._ (Sec. 243.1)
firmness, co:nstantia, -ae, _f._
first, pri:mus, -a, -um
flee, fugio:, 3
flight, fuga, -ae, _f._
fly, volo:, 1
foe, see enemy
follow close after, subsequor, 3
food, cibus, -i:, _m._
foot, pe:s, pedis, _m._
foot-soldier, pedes, -itis, _m._
for (_conj._), enim, nam
for (_prep._), _sign of dat._;
  de:, pro:, _with abl.;
  to express purpose_, ad, _with gerundive;
  implied in acc. of time and of extent of space_
for a long time, diu:
forbid, veto:, 1
forces, co:piae, -a:rum, _f., plur. of_ co:pia
forest, silva, -ae, _f._
fort, castellum, -i:, _n._; castrum, -i:, _n._
fortification, mu:nitio:, -o:nis, _f._
fortify, mu:nio:, 4
fortune, fortu:na, -ae, _f._
fourth, qua:rtus, -a, -um
free, li:ber, -era, -erum
free, liberate, li:bero:, 1
frequent, cre:ber, -bra, -brum
friend, ami:cus, -i:, _m._
friendly (_adj._), ami:cus, -a, -um
friendly (_adv._), ami:ce:
friendship, ami:citia, -ae, _f._
frighten, perterreo:, 2
from, a: _or_ ab, de:, e:, ex, _with abl._
  _Often expressed by the separative ablative without a prep._
from each other, inter, _with acc. of a reflexive pron._
full, ple:nus, -a, -um


G

Galba, Galba, -ae, _m._
_garland_, coro:na, -ae, _f._
garrison, praesidium, praesi'di:, _n._
gate, porta, -ae, _f._
Gaul, Gallia, -ae, _f._
Gaul (a), Gallus, -i:, _m._
general, impera:tor, -o:ris, _m._
Geneva, Gena:va, -ae, _f._
gentle, le:nis, -e
German, Germa:nus, -a, -um
Germans (the), Germa:ni:, -o:rum, _m. plur_.
Germany, Germa:nia, -ae, _f._
get (_dinner_), paro:, 1
girl, puella, -ae, _f._
give, do:, dare, dedi:, datus
give over, surrender, de:do:, 3; tra:do:, 3
give up, omitto:, 3
go, eo:, 4 (Sec. 499)
go forth, pro:gredior, 3
god, deus, -i:, _m._ (Sec. 468)
goddess, dea, -ae, _f._ (Sec. 67)
gold, aurum, -i:, _n._
good, bonus, -a, -um
grain, fru:mentum, -i:, _n._
grain supply, re:s fru:menta:ria
great, inge:ns, -entis; magnus, -a, -um
greatest, maximus, -a, -um; summus, -a, -um
guard, praesidium, praesi'di:, _n._


H

hand, manus, -u:s, _f._
happy, laetus, -a, -um
harbor, portus, -u:s, _m._
hasten, contendo:, 3; ma:tu:ro:, 1; propero:, 1
hateful, invi:sus, -a, -um
haughty, superbus, -a, -um
have, habeo:, 2
have no power, nihil possum
he, is; hic; iste; ille; _or not expressed_
head, caput, -itis, _n._
hear, audio:
heart, animus, -i:, _m._
heavy, gravis, -e
Helvetii (the), Helve:tii:, -o:rum, _m. plur._
hem in, contineo:, 2
hen, galli:na, -ae, _f._
her, eius; huius; isti:us; illi:us;
  _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (Sec. 116)
hide, abdo:, 3
high, altus, -a, -um
highest, summus, -a, -um
hill, collis, -is, _m._
himself, sui:. See self
hindrance, impedi:mentum, -i:, _n._
his, eius; huius; isti:us; illi:us;
  _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (Sec. 116)
hither, citerior, -ius (Sec. 315)
hold, teneo:, 2
home, domus, -u:s, _f._ (Sec. 468).
  at home, domi: (Sec. 267)
hope (_noun_), spe:s, spei:, _f._
hope (_verb_), spe:ro:, 1
horse, equus, -i:, _m._
horseman, eques, -itis, _m._
hostage, obses, -idis, _m. and f._
hostile, inimi:cus, -a, -um
hour, ho:ra, -ae, _f._
house, domicilium, domici'li:, _n._; domus, -u:s, _f._ (Sec. 468)
hurl, iacio:, 3


I

I, ego (Sec. 280); _or not expressed_
if, si:.
  if not, nisi
ill, aeger, -gra, -grum
immediately, statim
in (_of place_), in, _with abl._;
  (of time or of specification) _abl. without prep._
in order that, ut, _with subjv._;
  in order that not, lest, ne:, _with subjv._
in vain, fru:stra:
industry, di:ligentia, -ae, _f._
inflict injuries upon, iniu:ria:s i:nfero: _with dat._ (Sec. 426)
inflict punishment on, supplicium su:mo: de
inform some one, aliquem certio:rem facio:
injure, noceo:, 2, _with dat._ (Sec. 153)
injury, iniu:ria, -ae, _f._
into, in, _with acc._
intrust, committo:, 3; mando:, 1
invite, voco:, 1
is, _used as auxiliary, not translated_;
  _as a copula_, sum (Sec. 494)
island, i:nsula, -ae, _f._
it, is; hie; iste; ille; _or not expressed_
Italy, Italia, -ae, _f._
its, eius; huius; isti:us; illi:us;
  _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (Sec. 116)
itself, sui:. See self


J

join battle, proelium committo:
journey, iter, itineris, _n._ (Sec. 468)
judge (_noun_), iu:dex, -icis, _m._
judge (_verb_), iu:dico:, 1
Julia, Iu:lia, -ae, _f._
just now, nu:per


K

keep, contineo:, 2; prohibeo, 2; teneo:, 2
keep on doing something, _expressed by the impf. indic._
kill, interficio:, 3; neco:, 1; occi:do:, 3
king, re:x, re:gis, _m._
kingdom, re:gnum, -i:, _n._
know, cogno:sco:, 3, _in perf._; scio:, 4


L

labor (_noun_), labor, -o:ris, _m._
labor (_verb_), labo:ro:, 1
lack (_noun_), inopia, -ae, _f._
lack (_verb_), egeo:, 2, _with abl._ (Sec. 180)
lady, domina, -ae, _f._
lake, lacus, -u:s, _m._ (Sec. 260.2)
land, terra, -ae, _f._
language, lingua, -ae, _f._
large, inge:ns, -entis; magnus, -a, -um
larger, maior, maius
lately, nu:per
Latona, La:to:na, -ae, _f._
law, le:x, le:gis, _f._
lay waste, va:sto:, 1
lead, du:co, 3
leader, dux, ducis, _m. and f._
learn, know, cogno:sco:, 3
leave, depart from, disce:do:, 3
leave behind, abandon, relinquo:, 3
left, sinister, -tra, -trum
legion, legio:, -o:nis, _f._
legionaries, legio:na:rii:, -o:rum, _m. plur._
length, longitu:do:, -inis, _f._
lest, ne:, _with subjv._
letter (_of the alphabet_), littera, -ae, _f_;
  (_an epistle_) litterae, -a:rum, _f. plur_.
lieutenant, le:ga:tus, -i:, _m._
light, lu:x, lu:cis, _f._
like (_adj._), similis, -e
like, love, amo:, 1
line of battle, acie:s, acie:i:, _f._
little, parvus, -a, -um
live, habito:, 1; incolo:, 3; vi:vo:, 3
long, longus, -a, -um
long, for a long time, diu:
long for, de:si:dero:, 1
look after, cu:ro:, 1
love, amo:, 1


M

maid, maid servant, ancilla, -ae,_f._
make, facio:, 3
make war upon, bellum i:nfero: _with dat._ (Sec. 426)
man, homo:, -inis, _m. and f._; vir, viri:, _m._
man-of-war, na:vis longa
many, multi:, -ae, -a, _plur. of_ multus
march, iter, itineris, _n._ (Sec. 468)
Mark, Ma:rcus, -i:, _m._
marriage, ma:trimo:nium, ma:trimo:'ni:, _n._
master, dominus, -i:, _m._; magi:ster, -tri:, _m._
matter, nego:tium, nego:'ti:, _n._; re:s, rei:, _f._
means, by means of, _the abl._
messenger, nu:ntius, nu:nti:, _m._
midnight, media nox
mile, mi:lle passuum (Sec. 331.b)
miles, mi:lia passuum
mind, animus, -i:, _m._; me:ns, mentis, _f._
mine, meus, -a, -um
mistress, domina, -ae, _f._
money, pecu:nia, -ae, _f._
monster, mo:nstrum, -i:, _n._
month, me:nsis, -is, _m._
moon, lu:na, -ae, _f._
more (_adj._), plu:s, plu:ris (Sec. 313); _or a comparative. Adverb_,
    magis
most (_adj._), plu:rimus, -a, -um;
  _superl. degree. Adverb_, maxime:; plu:rimum
mother, ma:ter, ma:tris, _f._
mountain, mo:ns, montis, _m._
move, moveo:, 2
moved, commo:tus, -a, -um
much (by), multo:
multitude, multitu:do:, -inis. _f._
my, meus, -a, -um
myself, me:, _reflexive_. See self


N

name, no:men, -inis, _n._
nation, ge:ns, gentis, _f._
near, propinquus, -a, -um
nearest, proximus, -a, -um
nearly, fere:
neighbor, fi:nitimus, -i:, _in._
neighboring, fi:initimus, -a, -um
neither, neque _or_ nec;
  neither ... nor, neque (nec) ... neque (nec)
never, numquam
nevertheless, tamen
new, novus, -a, -um
next day, postri:die: eius die:i:
next to, proximus, -a, -um
night, nox, noctis, _f._
nine, novem
no, minime:; _or repeat verb with a negative_ (Sec. 210)
no, none, nu:llus, -a, -um (Sec. 109)
no one, ne:mo:, nu:lli:us
nor, neque _or_ nec
not, no:n
not even, ne: ... quidem
not only ... but also, no:n so:lum ... sed etiam
nothing, nihil _or_ nihilum, -i:, _n._
now, nunc
number, numerus, -i:, _m._


O

obey, pa:reo:, 2, _with dat._ (Sec. 153)
of, _sign of gen._;
  de:, _with abl._;
  out of, e: _or_ ex, _with abl._
often, saepe
on (_of place_), in, _with abl._;
  (_of time_) _abl. without prep._
on account of, propter, _with acc._; _or abl. of cause._
on all sides, undique
once (_upon a time_), o:lim
one, u:nus, -a, -um (Sec. 108)
one ... another, alius ... alius (Sec. 110)
only (_adv._), so:lum; tantum
opportune, opportunus, -a, -um
opposite, adversus, -a, -um
oracle, o:ra:culum, -i:, _n._
orator, o:ra:tor, -o:ris, _m._
order, impero:, 1; iubeo:, 2
ornament, o:rna:mentum, -i:, _n._
other, alius, -a, -ud (Sec. 109)
others (the), reliqui:, -o:rum, _m. plur._
ought, de:beo:, 2
our, noster, -tra, -trum
ourselves, no:s, _as reflexive object._ See self
overcome, supero:, 1; vinco:, 3
own (his, her, its, their), suus, -a, -um


P

part, pars, partis, _f._
peace, pa:x, pa:cis, _f._
people, populus, -i:, _m._
Perseus, Perseus, -i:, _m._
persuade, persua:deo:, 2, _with dat._ (Sec. 153)
pitch camp, castra po:no:
place (_noun_), locus, -i:, _m._
place, arrange, conloco:, 1
place, put, po:no:, 3
place in command, praeficio:, 3, _with acc. and dat._ (Sec. 426)
plan (a), co:nsilium, co:nsi'li:, _n._
please, placeo:, 2, _with dat._ (Sec. 154)
pleasing, gra:tus, -a, -um
plow, aro:, 1
Pompeii, Pompe:ii:, -o:rum, _m. plur._
possible (as), _expressed by_ quam _and superl_.
powerful (be), valeo:, 2
praise, laudo:, 1
prefer, ma:lo:, ma:lle, ma:lui:, ---- (Sec. 497)
prepare for, paro:, 1, _with acc._
press hard, premo:, 3
protection, fide:s, fidei:, _f._
province, pro:vincia, -ae, _f._
public, pu:blicus, -a, -um
Publius, Pu:blius, Pu:bli:, _m._
punishment, poena, -ae, _f._; supplicium, suppli'ci:, _n._
purpose, for the purpose of, ut, qui:, _or_ quo:, _with subjv._;
  ad, _with gerund or gerundive_;
  causa:, _following the genitive of a gerund or gerundive_
pursue, i:nsequor, 3


Q

queen, re:gi:na, -ae, _f._
quickly, celeriter
quite, _expressed by the comp. degree_


R

rampart, va:llum, -i:, _n._
rear, novissimum agmen
reason, causa, -ae, _f._
receive, accipio:, 3; excipio:, 3
recent, rece:ns, -entis
recently, nu:per
redoubt, castellum, -i:, _n._
refuse, recu:so:, 1
remain, maneo:, 2
remaining, reliquus, -a, -um
reply, respondeo:, 2
report (_noun_), fama, -ae, _f._; ru:mor, -o:ris, _m._
report (_verb_), adfero:; de:fero:; refero: (Sec. 498)
republic, re:s pu:blica
require, postulo:, 1
resist, resisto:, 3, _with dat._ (Sec. 154)
rest (the), reliqui:, -o:rum, _m. plur._
restrain, contineo:, 2
retainer, clie:ns, -entis, _m._
retreat, pedem refero:; terga verto:
return, redeo:, 4; revertor, 3
revolution, re:s novae
Rhine, Rhe:nus, -i:, _m._
right, dexter, -tra, -trum
river, flu:men, -inis, _n._; fluvius, fluvi:, _m._
road, via, -ae, _f._
Roman, Ro:ma:nus, -a, -um
Rome, Ro:ma, -ae, _f._
row, o:rdo:, -inis, _m._
rule, rego:, 3
rumor, fa:ma, -ae, _f._; ru:mor, -o:ris, _m._
run, curro:, 3


S

sacrifice, sacrum, -i:, _n._
safety, salu:s, -u:tis, _f._
sail, na:vigo:, 1
sailor, nauta, -ae, _m._
sake, for the sake of, causa:, _following a gen._
same, i:dem, eadem, idem (Sec. 287)
savages, barbari:, -o:rum, _m. plur._
save, servo:, 1
say, di:co:, 3
school, lu:dus, -i:, _m._; schola, -ae, _f._
scout, explo:ra:tor, -o:ris, _m._
sea, mare, -is, _n._
second, secundus, -a, -um
see, video:, 2
seek, peto:, 3
seem, videor, 2, _passive of_ video:
seize, occupo:, 1; rapio:, 3
self, ipse, -a, -um (Sec. 286); sui: (Sec. 281)
send, mitto:, 3
set fire to, incendo:, 3
set out, profici:scor, 3
seven, septem
Sextus, Sextus, -i:, _m._
she, ea; haec; ista; illa (Sec. 115);
  _or not expressed_
ship, na:vis, -is, _f._ (Sec. 243.1)
short, brevis, -e
shout, cla:mor, -o:ris, _m._
show, de:mo:nstro:, 1
Sicily, Sicilia, -ae, _f._
sick, aeger, -gra, -grum
side, latus, -eris, _n._
siege, obsidio:, -o:nis, _f._
since, cum, _with subjv._ (Sec. 396);
  _the abl. abs._ (Sec. 381)
sing, cano:, 3; canto:, 1
sister, soror, -o:ris, _f._
sit, sedeo:, 2
size, magnitu:do:, -inis, _f._
skillful, peri:tus, -a, -um
slave, servus, -i:, _m._
slavery, servitiu:s, -u:tis, _f._
slow, tardus, -a, -um
small, parvus, -a, -um
snatch, rapio:, 3
so, ita; si:c; tam
so great, tantus, -a, -um
so that, ut;
  so that not, ut no:n
soldier, mi:les, -itis, _m._
some, _often not expressed_;
  quis (qui:), qua (quae), quid (quod); aliqui:, aliqua, aliquod
some one, quis; aliquis (Sec. 487)
some ... others, alii: ... alii: (Sec. 110)
something, quid; aliquid (Sec. 487)
son, fi:lius, fi:li:, _m._
soon, mox
space, spatium, spati:, _n._
spear, pi:lum, -i:, _n._
spirited, a:cer, a:cris, a:cre; alacer, alacris, alacre
spring, fo:ns, fontis, _m._
spur, calcar, -a:ris, _n._
stand, sto:, 1
state, ci:vita:s, -a:tis, _f._
station, conloco:, 1
steadiness, co:nstantia, -ae, _f._
stone, lapis, -idis, _m._
storm, oppugno:, 1
story, fa:bula, -ae, _f._
street, via, -ae, _f._
strength, vi:s, (vi:s), _f._
strong, fortis, -e; validus, -a, -um
sturdy, validus, -a, -um
such, ta:lis, -e
suddenly, subito:
suffer punishment, supplicium do:
sufficiently, satis
suitable, ido:neus, -a, -um
summer, aesta:s, -a:tis, _f._
sun, so:l, so:lis, _m._
supplies, commea:tus, -u:s, _m._
surrender, tra:do:, 3
suspect, suspicor, 1
swift, celer, -eris, -ere; ve:lo:x, -o:cis
sword, gladius, gladi:, _m._


T

take, capture, capio:, 3
take part in, intersum, -esse, -fui:, -futu:rus, _with dat._ (Sec. 426)
take possession of, occupo:, 1
tall, altus, -a, -um
task, opus, operis, _n._
teach, doceo:, 2
teacher, magister, -tri:, _m._
tear (_noun_), lacrima, -ae, _f._
tell, di:co:, 3; na:rro:, 1
ten, decem
terrified, perterritus, -a, -um
terrify, perterreo:, 2
than, quam
that (_conj. after verbs of saying and the like_), _not expressed_
that (_pron._), is; iste; ille
that, in order that, _in purpose clauses_, ut; _after verbs of
fearing_, ne: (Secs. 349, 366, 372)
that not, lest, _in purpose clauses_, ne:;
  _after verbs of fearing_, ut (Secs. 349, 366, 372)
the, _not expressed_
their, _gen. plur. of_ is; _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (Sec. 116)
their own, suus, -a, -um (Sec. 116)
then, at that time, tum
then, in the next place, deinde, tum
there, _as expletive, not expressed_
there, in that place, ibi
therefore, itaque
they, ii:; hi:; isti:; illi:;
  _or not expressed_
think, arbitror, 1; exi:stimo:, 1; puto:, 1
third, tertius, -a, -um
this, hic, haec, hoc; is, ea, id
though, cum. _with subjv._ (Sec. 396)
thousand, mi:lle (Sec. 479)
three, tre:s, tria (Sec. 479)
through, per, _with acc._
thy, tuus, -a, -um
time, tempus, -oris, _n._
to, _sign of dat._;
  ad, in, _with acc._;
  _expressing purpose_, ut, qui:, _with subjv._;
  ad, _with gerund or gerundive_
to each other, inter, _with acc. of a reflexive pron._
to-day, hodie:
tooth, de:ns, dentis, _m._
top of, summus, -a, -um
tower, turris, -is, _f._ (Sec. 243.2)
town, oppidum, -i:, _n._
townsman, oppida:nus, -i:, _m._
trace, vesti:gium, vesti:'gi:, _n._
trader, merca:tor, -o:ris, _m._
train, exerceo:, 2
tree, arbor, -oris, _f._
tribe, ge:ns, gentis, _f._
troops, co:piae, -a:rum, _f. plur._
true, ve:rus, -a, -um
trumpet, tuba, -ae, _f._
try, co:nor, 1; tempto:, 1
twelve, duodecim
two, duo, duae, duo (Sec. 479)


U

under, sub, _with acc. or abl._
undertake, suscipio:, 3
unharmed, incolumis, -e
unless, nisi
unlike, dissimilis, -e
unwilling (be), no:lo:, no:lle, no:lui:, ---- (Sec. 497)
up to, sub, _with acc._
us, no:s, _acc. plur. of_ ego


V

very, _superl. degree_; maxime:; ipse, -a, -um (Sec. 285)
victor, victor, -o:ris, _m._
victory, victo:ria, -ae, _f._
village, vi:cus, -i:, _m._
violence, vi:s, (vi:s), _f._
violently, vehementer
voice, vo:x, vo:cis, _f._


W

wage, gero:, 3
wagon, carrus. -i:, _m._
wall, mu:rus, -i:, _m._
want, inopia, -ae, _f._
war, bellum, -i:, _n._
watch, vigilia, -ae, _f._
water, aqua, -ae, _f._
wave, fluctus, -u:s, _m._
way, iter, itineris, _n._ (Sec. 468); via, -ae, _f._
way, manner, modus, -i:, _m._
we, no:s, _plur. of_ ego; _or not expressed_
weak, i:nfi:rmus, -a, -um
weapons, arma, -o:rum, _n. plur._; te:la, -o:rum, _n. plur._
wear, gero:, 3
weary, de:fessus, -a, -um
what, quis (qui:), quae, quid (quod) (Sec. 483)
when, ubi; cum (Sec. 396); _often expressed by a participle_
where, ubi
which, qui:, quae, quod (Sec. 482);
  which of two, uter, utra, utrum (Sec. 108)
while, _expressed by a participle_
whither, quo:
who (_rel._), qui:, quae (Sec. 482); (_interrog._) quis (Sec. 483)
whole, to:tus, -a, -um (Sec. 108)
whose, cuius;
  quo:rum, qua:rum, quo:rum, _gen. of_ qui:, quae, quod, _rel._;
  _or of_ quis, quid, _interrog_.
why, cu:r
wicked, malus, -a, -um
wide, la:tus, -a, -um
width, la:titu:do:, -inis, _f._
wild beast, fera, -ae, _f._
willing (be), volo:, velle, volui:, ---- (Sec. 497)
win (_a victory_), reporto:, 1
wind, ventus, -i:, _m._
wine, vi:num, -i:, _n._
wing, cornu:, -u:s, _n._
winter, hiems, -emis, _f._
wisdom, co:nsilium, consi'li:, _n._
wish, cupio:, 3; volo:, velle, volui:, ---- (Sec. 497);
  wish not, no:lo:, no:lle, no:lui:, ---- (Sec. 497)
with, cum, _with abl.; sometimes abl. alone_
withdraw, se: recipere
without, sine, _with abl._
woman, fe:mina, -ae, _f._; mulier, -eris, _f._
wonderful, mi:rus, -a, -um
word, verbum, -i:, _n._
work, labor, -o:ris, _m._; opus, -eris, _n._
worse, peior, peius, _comp. of_ malus
worst, pessimus, -a, -um, _superl. of_ malus
wound (_noun_), vulnus, -eris, _n._
wound (_verb_), vulnero:, 1
wreath, coro:na, -ae, _f._
wretched, miser, -era, -erum
wrong, iniu:ria, -ae, _f._


Y

year, annus, -i:, _m._
yes, certe:; ita; ve:ro:; _or, more usually, repeat the verb_ (Sec. 210)
yonder (that), ille, -a, -ud
you, _sing_. tu:; _plur_. vo:s (Sec. 480); _or not expressed_
your, _sing_. tuus, -a, -um; _plur._ vester, -tra, -trum (Sec. 98.b)


Z

zeal, studium, studi:, _n._




INDEX

The numbers in all cases refer to sections.

a:-declension of nouns, 57, 461
a:-verbs, conjugation of, 488
ablative case, 48, 50
  absolute, 381
  after a comparative, 309
  of accompaniment, 104
  of agent, 181
  of cause, 102
  of description, 444, 445
  of manner, 105
  of means or instrument, 103
  of measure of difference, 317
  of place from which, 179
  of place where, 265
  of separation, 180
  of specification, 398
  of time, 275
accent, 14-16
accompaniment
  abl. of, 104
accusative case, 33
  as subject of the infinitive, 214
  object, 37
  of duration and extent, 336
  of place to which, 263, 266
  predicate, 392
  with prepositions, 340
adjectives, 54, 55
  agreement, 65
  comparison
    regular, 301
    by adverbs, 302
    irregular, 307, 311, 312, 315
  declension of comparatives, 303
  of first and second declensions, 83, 93, 469
  of third declension, 250-257, 471
  with the dative, 143
adverbs, 319
  comparison, 320, 323
  formation
    regular, 320, 321
    irregular, 322, 323
agent
  expressed by the abl. with _a:_ or _ab_, 181
agreement
  of adjectives, 65, 215.a
  of appositives, 81
  of predicate nouns, 76
  of relative pronouns, 224
  of verbs, 28
aliquis, 487
alius, 108, 110, 470
alphabet, 1-3
alter, 108, 110
antepenult, 9.3; accent of, 15
apposition, 80, 81
article
  not used in Latin, 22.a

base, 58

cardinal numerals, 327-329, 478
case, 32.2
causal clauses with _cum_, 395, 396
cause,
  expressed by the abl., 102
characteristic
  subjv. of, 389, 390
comparative
  declension of, 303
comparison
  abl. of, 309
  degrees of, 300
  of adjectives, 300-315
    irregular, 311-315, 473, 475
  of adverbs
    regular, 320-476
    irregular, 323, 477
  positive wanting, 315
  six adjectives in _-lis_, 307
complementary infinitive, 215
compound verbs
  with the dative, 425, 426
concessive clauses with _cum_, 395, 396
conjugation stems, 184
conjugations
  the four regular, 126, 488-491
  irregular, 494-500
consonants, 2
copula, 21
cum
  conjunction, 395
cum
  preposition, 209

dative case, 43
  of indirect object, 44, 45
  of purpose, or end for which, 437
  with adjectives, 143
  with compound verbs, 426
  with special verbs, 153
dea
  declension of, 67
declension, 23, 32
degree of difference
  expressed by the abl., 317
demonstrative adjectives and pronouns, 112-115, 290-292, 481
deponent verbs, 338, 339, 493
descriptive ablative and genitive, 441-445
descriptive relative clause
  with the subjv., 389, 390
deus
  declension of, 468
difference, measure of, 316, 317
diphthongs, 6
direct statements, 414
distributive numerals, 327.3, 334
domi:
  locative, 267
domus
  declension of, 468
duo
  declension of, 479
duration of time, expressed by the acc., 336

e:-declension of nouns, 272, 273, 467
e:-verbs, conjugation of, 489
e-verbs, conjugation of, 490
ego
  declension of, 280, 480
enclitics, 16
eo:
  conjugation of, 499
extent of space
  expressed by the acc., 336

fearing
  subjv. after verbs of, 370-372
fero:
  conjugation of, 498
fifth or e:-declension, 272, 273, 467
fi:lia
  declension of, 67
fi:lius
  declension of, 87-89
finite verb
  defined, 173
fi:o:
  conjugation of, 500
first conjugation, 488
first or a:-declension, 57, 461
fourth conjugation, 491
fourth or u-declension, 259, 260, 466
from
  how expressed, 178-181
future participle
  formation of, 374.c
future perfect
  formation of
    active, 187.3
    passive, 202
future tense
  formation of, 137, 156

gender
  in English and in Latin, 60
  in the first declension, 61
  in the second declension, 72
  in the third declension, 247
  in the fourth declension, 260
  in the fifth declension, 272
general observations on declension, 74
genitive case
  English equivalents of, 33
  of description, 443, 445
  of nouns in _-ius_ and _-ium_, 87
  partitive, 331
  possessive, 38, 409
gerund
  a verbal noun, 402, 403
gerundive
  a verbal adjective, 404
  with _ad_ to express purpose, 407

hic
  declension and use of, 290, 291
how to read Latin, 17

i
  consonant, 3
i-stems of nouns, 231, 241-244
i:-verbs
  conjugation of, 491
i:dem
  declension of, 287, 481
ie:ns
  declension of, 472
ille
  declension and use of, 290-293, 481
imperative
  formation of, 161, 175
    irregular, 161.2
  in commands, 161
imperfect indicative, formation and use of, 133, 134, 165.1
imperfect subjunctive, 354
indefinite pronouns and adjectives, 296, 297, 484-487
independent clauses, 219
indirect object, 44, 45
indirect questions, 430-432
indirect statements, 414-419
infinitive
  as object, 213
  as subject, 216
  complementary, 215
  definition of, 173
  does not express purpose, 352
  formation of, 126, 174, 205, 206
  in indirect statements, 415-410
  used as in English, 213-216
inflection
  defined, 23
instrument
  abl. of, 100.b, 103
intensive pronoun
  _ipse_, declension and use of, 285, 286, 481
interrogative pronouns and adjectives, 225-227, 483
intransitive verbs,
  defined, 20.a
  with the dative, 153
io:-verbs of the third conj., 492
ipse
  declension and use of, 285, 481
irregular adjectives, 108
irregular comparison
  of adjectives, 307 311, 312
  of adverbs, 323
irregular nouns, 67, 246, 468
irregular verbs, 494-500
is
  declension and use of, 113-116
iste
  declension and use of, 290, 292, 481
iter
  declension of, 468

Latin word order, 68
locative case, 267

magis and maxime:
  comparison by, 302
ma:lo:
  conjugation of, 4.97
manner
  abl. of, 105
means
  abl. of, 103
measure of difference
  abl. of, 316, 317
mi:lle,
  declension of, 479
  construction with, 331.a,b
moods, defined, 121

-ne, enclitic
  in questions, 210
ne:, conj., _that not, lest_
  with negative clauses of purpose, 350.II
  with verbs of fearing, 370
nine irregular adjectives, 108-110
no:lo:
  conjugation of, 497
nominative case, 35, 36
no:nne
  in questions, 210
no:s
  declension of, 280, 480
nouns, 19. 2
  first declension, 57, 461
  second declension, 71-74,87-92,462
  third declension, 230-247, 463-465
  fourth declension, 259, 260, 466
  fifth declension, 272, 273, 467
num, in questions, 210
number, 24
numerals, 327-334, 478, 479

o-declension of nouns, 71-74, 87-92, 462
object, 20
  direct, 37
  indirect, 44, 45
order of words, 68
ordinal numerals, 327. 2, 478

participial stem, 201.2
participles, defined, 203
  agreement of, 204
  formation,
    of present, 374.b
    of perfect, 201
    of future, 374.c,d
  of deponent verbs, 375
  tenses of, 376
  translated by a clause, 377
partitive genitive, 330, 331
passive voice
  defined, 163
  formation of, 164, 202
penult, 9.3
  accent of, 15
perfect indicative
  formation,
    in the active, 185, 186
    in the passive, 202
  meaning of, 190
  definite, 190
  indefinite, 190
  distinguished from the imperfect, 190
perfect infinitive
  active, 195
  passive, 205
perfect passive participle, 201
perfect stem, 185
perfect subjunctive
  active, 361
  passive, 362
person, 122
personal endings
  active, 122
  passive, 164
personal pronouns, 280, 480
place
  where, whither, whence, 263-265
  names of towns and _domus_ and _ru:s_, 266-268
pluperfect indicative
  active, 187.2
  passive, 202
pluperfect subjunctive
  active, 361
  passive, 363
plu:s
  declension of, 313
possessive pronouns, 97, 98
possum
  conjugation of, 495
predicate
  defined, 19
predicate adjective
  defined, 55
predicate noun, 75, 76
prepositions
  with the abl., 209
  with the acc., 340
present indicative, 128, 130, 147
present stem, 126.a
present subjunctive, 344
primary tenses, 356
principal parts, 183
pronouns
  classification of, 278
  defined, 19.2.a
  demonstrative, 481
  indefinite, 297, 484-487
  intensive, 285, 286, 481
  interrogative, 483
  personal, 480
  possessive, 97, 98
  reflexive, 281
  relative, 220, 221
pronunciation, 4-7
pro:sum
  conjugation of, 496
purpose
  dative of, 436, 437
  expressed by the gerund or gerundive with _ad_, 407
  not expressed by the infinitive, 352
  subjunctive of, 348-350, 365-367

quality
  gen. or abl. of, 441-445
quam
  with a comparative, 308
quantity, 11-13
questions
  direct, 210
  indirect, 430-432
qui:
  declension and use of, 220,221, 482
qui:dam
  declension of, 485
quis
  declension and use of, 225-227, 483
quisquam
  declension of, 486
quisque
  declension of, 484

reflexive pronouns, 281
relative clauses of characteristic or description, 389, 390
relative clauses of purpose, 348, 349
relative pronouns, 220, 221
result clauses, 384-387
reviews, 502-528
ru:s
  constructions of, 266

se:
  distinguished from _ipse_, 285.a
second conjugation, 489
second or o-declension, 71-93, 462
sentences
  simple, complex, compound, 219
separation
  abl. of, 180
separative ablative, 178-181
sequence of tenses, 356-358
space
  extent of, expressed by the acc., 336
specification
  abl. of, 398
stems
  of nouns, 230
  of verbs, 184
subject
  defined, 19.2
  of the infinitive, 213, 214
subjunctive
  formation of the present, 344
  of the imperfect, 354
  of the perfect, 361, 362
  of the pluperfect, 361.c, 363
subjunctive constructions
  characteristic or description, 389, 390
  indirect questions, 430-432
  purpose, 349, 366, 372
  result, 385, 386
  time, cause, or concession, with _cum_, 395, 396
subjunctive ideas, 346
subjunctive tenses, 342, 343
subordinate clauses, 219
sui:
  declension of, 281, 480
sum
  conjugation of, 494
suus
  use of, 98.c, 116
syllables, 8
  division of, 9
  quantity of, 13
syntax
  rules of, 501

temporal clauses with _cum_, 395, 396
tense
  defined, 120
tense signs
  imperfect, 133
  future, 137, 156
  pluperfect active, 187.2
  future perfect active, 187.3
tenses
  primary and secondary, 356
  sequence of, 357, 358
third conjugation, 490, 492
third declension of nouns
  classes, 231, 463
  consonant stems, 232-238, 464
  gender, 247
  i-stems, 241-244, 465
  irregular nouns, 246
time
  abl. of, 275
time
  acc. of, 336
towns
  rules for names of, 266, 267, 268
transitive verb, 20.a
tre:s
  declension of, 479
tu:
  declension of, 280, 480
tuus
  compared with _vester_, 98. b

u-declension of nouns, 259, 260, 466
ultima, 9. 3

verbs
  agreement of, 28
  conjugation of, 126, 488-491
  deponent, 338, 339, 493
  irregular, 494-500
  personal endings of, 122, 164
  principal parts of, 183
vester
  compared with _tuus_, 98.b
vi:s
  declension of, 468
vocabularies
  English-Latin, pp. 332-343
  Latin-English, pp. 299-331
  special, pp. 283-298
vocative case, 56.a
  of nouns in _-us_ of the second declension, 73.b
  of proper nouns in _-ius_ and of _fi:lius_, 88
voice
  defined, 163
volo:
  conjugation of, 497
vo:s
  declension of, 280, 480
vowels
  sounds of, 5, 6
  quantity of, 12






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